GIFT  OF 


CLark, 


RHYTHM. 


BY 

THADDEUS  L.  BQLTON,:    :  .    .  . . 

Demonstrator  and  Fellow  in  Psychology,  Clark  Univerbi'jjy *  ^cT*cest&P,  JIass.*. 


Approved  as  a  thesis  for  the  degree   of  Doctor   of   Philosophy 
at  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 

G.  STANLEY  HALL. 


(Reprinted  from  the  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Vol.  VI.  No.  Z.) 


,« 


PRB86  OF  F.  B.  BLANCHARD  AND  COMPANY, 
«  ORCESTER. 


niHiVBRsiTr 

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EHYTHM. 
BY  THADDEUS  L.  BOLTON, 

Demonstrator  and  Fellow  in  Psychology,  Clark  University. 


Re printed  from  The  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Vol.  VL,  No.  2. 

r/r+i*I 

INTRODUCTION. 

Although  experimental  psychology  began  more  than  a 
hundred  years  ago  through  the  discovery  of  the  personal 
equation,  it  has  as  yet  covered  but  a  small  portion  of  the  field 
of  mental  phenomena.  The  nature  of  sensation,  the  time- 
relations  of  mental  phenomena,  memory,  association,  space 
and  time  concepts  have  been  carefully  studied  by  many 
eminent  scientists.  But  the  whole  field  of  the  emotions  has 
been  practically  a  mare  clausum  for  psychologists.  Several 
attempts  to  study  and  determine  the  nature  of  the  simplest 
aesthetic  forms  have  been  reported ;  theories  of  pleasure  and 
pain,  supported  by  some  experimental  observations,  have  been 
advanced,  but  no  serious  attempt  has  been  made  to  submit 
the  emotions  to  experimental  investigation.  Every  psycholo- 
gist recognizes  the  necessity  of  doing  so  and  that  it  is  the 
most  important  field  of  mental  phenomena,  and  that,  until 
psychologists  can  reduce  the  motions  to  some  semblance  of 
order  or  more  ultimate  principles,  experimental  psychology 
can  be  said  to  cover  only  a  part  of  the  field  of  mental  life. 
Every  one  is  waiting  for  some  one  else  to  point  out  the  way. 
There  seems  to  be  a  general  feeling  that  when  once  an  en 
trance  has  been  effected,  the  greatest  difficulty  will  have  been 


2  BOLTON : 

surmounted  and  the  whole  field  will  yield  to  experiment.  In 
a  measure  this  is  the  true  view  to  take,  and  yet  certain  of  the 
emotions  are  as  distinctly  separated  from  others  as  the  whole 
field  is  from  that  of  the  memory. 

When  the  demand  for  such  a  study  is  so  great,  and  students 
are  being  urged  ia  make  a  trial,  that  one  who  does  attempt  it, 
though  he'fpjlj'Gaijnot  be  accounted  rash. 

'The  experimental,  study  of  rhythm  which  is  to  be  presented 
in^titi&paptfr,  is/an  attempt  to  push  the  lines  of  exact  science 
Ji;Cfrt'fe:fart5ter'forwa'fd  into  a  field  that  borders  more  closely 
upon  the  field  of  aesthetics  than  any  other  that  experimental 
psychologists  have  tried.  The  attempt  is  to  be  made  to  re- 
duce rhythm  to  a  more  fundamental  activity  of  mind.  The 
pleasure  that  individuals  take  in  the  rhythmic  flow  of  words 
and  sounds  has  been  ascribed  by  one  to  the  "  Unifying  Ac- 
tivity of  the  Feelings, ' '  by  another  to  a  "  Sense  of  Order, ' ' 
and  by  still  another  to  "  The  Feelings  of  Equality."  Such 
explanations  as  these  do  not  meet  the  question  at  all,  unless 
it  can  be  shown  that  such  activities  or  feelings  are  ultimate 
facts  of  mind.  If  they  are  ultimate  facts  of  the  mind,  it  will 
be  necessary,  in  order  to  make  the  explanation  complete  and 
valid,  to  show  how  they  underlie  other  activities,  for  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  any  fundamental  activity  will  manifest 
itself  in  a  single  phenomenon  which  bears  no  relation  to 
other  phenomena.  Such  does  not  seem  to  have  been  done  by 
those  who  have  offered  explanations  of  the  rhythms  in  speech, 
and  the  problem  remains  just  where  it  was  taken  up.  To  re- 
gard rhythm  as  the  manifestation  or  the  form  of  the  most 
fundamental  activities  of  mind,  seems  a  clearer  view  and  to 
offer  less  difficulties  than  to  regard  it  as  an  ultimate  fact  in 
itself.  The  problem,  then,  is  to  show  how  and  to  what  extent 
it  underlies  mental  activity,  and,  as  preparatory  to  this,  what 
part  it  plays  in  physiology  and  nature.  Is  there  not  some 
universal  principle  which  is  adequate  as  an  explanation  of 
rhythm  in  general? 

Ehythm  is  so  universal  a  phenomenon  in  nature  and  in 
physiological  activity,  and  underlies  so  completely  speech, 
that  I  desire  to  call  attention  to  some  of  its  manifestations  in 
detail  before  presenting  the  experimental  study. 

Rhythms  in  Nature : — Natural  phenomena  very  generally, 
if  not  universally,  take  a  rhythmic  form.  There  is  aperiodic 
recurrence  of  a  certain  phenomenon,  sometimes  accompanied 
by  others,  going  on  continuously  in  all  that  pertains  to 
nature.  Motion,  whether  in  the  broader  field  of  the  universe 
or  upon  the  earth,  is  very  generally  periodic.  Light,  heat, 
sound,  and  probably  electricity,  are  propagated  in  the  form  of 
waves.  A  falling  body  does  not  follow  a  straight  line, 


EHYTHM.  3 

neither  does  a  rifle  bullet  describe  a  simple  curve  which  is  the 
resultant  of  the  combined  forces  of  gravity  and  the  initial 
velocity.  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  has  treated  this  subject  in 
his  "  Principles  of  Philosophy  "  at  considerable  length ,  and 
has  left  but  little  that  can  be  said  here.  Although  he  does 
not  say  so  in  so  many  words,  he  seems  to  hold  that  it  is  the 
only  possible  form  of  activity ;  continuous  motion  is  an  im- 
possibility. 

The  cosmic  rhythms,  however,  are  the  most  fundamental  and 
important  of  natural  phenomena.  They  may  be  shown  to 
underlie  in  a  measure  and  be  the  cause  of  many  other  rhythms 
in  plant  and  animal  life.  The  regular  alternation  of  light  and 
darkness  due  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth  upon  its  axis  is  the 
most  striking  rhythm  in  the  cosmos.  The  two  periods  of 
light  and  darkness  constitute  a  unit — the  day — which  re- 
mains always  the  same  in  length.  Days  are  grouped  into 
months  by  the  revolution  of  the  moon  about  the  earth,  and 
into  years  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth  about  the  sun. 
These  periodic  changes  have  had  a  tremendous  influence 
upon  animal  and  plant  life,  and  have  stamped  their  impress 
upon  all  living  organisms  in  the  most  striking  manner ; 
some,  however,  upon  certain  organisms  more  than  upon  others. 
In  the  vegetable  kingdom  some  plants  show  a  daily  growth 
and  repose;  their  flowers  bloom  in  the  morning  and  close 
before  the  evening.  Some  turn  their  petals  towards  the  sun, 
and  make  a  daily  revolution  in  order  to  keep  them  so.  In 
certain  latitudes  all  vegetation  shows  normal  periods  of 
growth  and  fruitage  which  are  not  necessarily  cut  short  or 
lengthened  by  early  or  late  frosts.  It  requires  a  certain  time 
for  development  without  regard  to  the  character  of  the  season. 
The  lunar  period  is  known  to  influence  the  blooming  of 
flowers.  A  species  of  Chinese  roses  blooms  with  a  monthly 
regularity  during  the  season. 

The  influence  of  these  cosmic  rhythms  is  not  less  upon  the 
animal  kingdom.  The  daily  rhythm  causes  the  daily  periods 
of  sleep  and  waking,  from  which  no  terrestrial  creatures  of 
the  higher  types  are  exempt.  The  periods  of  sleep  and  wak- 
ing are  not  determined  by  the  effect  of  light  and  darkness  as 
are  the  movements  of  many  plants.  The  lunar  period  has  had 
a  far-reaching  effect  upon  animal  creatures,  especially  as  re- 
gards reproduction  and  the  nervous  system.  The  periods  of 
gestation  and  the  recurrence  of  heat  and  menstrual  flow  in 
both  human  beings  and  animals  bear  a  very  close  and  strik- 
ing relation  to  the  lunar  period.  The  period  of  gestation  in 
some  lower  mammalian  animals  is  one  month.  In  the  higher 
forms  it  is  a  certain  number  of  months.  The  time  of  incuba- 
tion is  with  some  species  of  fowls  a  month,  but  it  seems  to 


4  BOLTON : 

conform  in  general  to  a  period  of  days  which  is  a  certain 
multiple  of  seven,  seven  being  one-fourth  of  a  lunar  month. 
Fourteen,  twenty- one  and  twenty- eight  days  are  very  common 
periods  of  incubation.  The  year  exercises  a  still  wider  in- 
fluence upon  the  animal  kingdom.  The  normal  life  of  most 
species  of  insects  terminates  in  a  single  year.  The  frog 
becomes  nervous  and  irritable  with  the  approach  of  spring, 
although  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  kept  may  not 
change.  The  polar  bear  goes  into  hibernation,  even  though 
he  has  not  made  the  proper  preparation  in  the  way  of  a  store 
of  fat.  The  migrations  of  birds  are  not  necessarily  prompted 
by  the  signs  of  approaching  winter.  Animals  breed  generally 
in  the  spring — a  fact  which  cannot  find  sufficient  explanation 
in  the  influence  of  a  warmer  temperature.  It  has  been  fairly 
established  that  growth  is  more  rapid  during  the  summer 
months. 

Although  we  find  that  these  cosmic  rhythms  have  stamped 
themselves  upon  the  organism  more  or  less  permanently, 
they  have  wielded  a  far  mightier  influence  upon  the  minds  of 
men.  Among  primitive  peoples  that  were  rich  in  imagina- 
tive power,  they  have  given  rise  to  the  most  elaborate  and 
beautiful  systems  of  mythology^and  worship  that  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  It  is  a  common  speculation  in  childhood 
that,  endowing  animals  at  birth,  as  children  do,  with  rational 
intelligence,  but  with  a  total  lack  of  experience,  the  young 
creature  must  be  driven  to  strange  thoughts  and  speculations 
when  the  first  light  of  day  breaks  in  upon  him,  or  when  dark- 
ness approaches  for  the  first  time.  What  can  be  the  thoughts 
of  such  a  creature  when  he  experiences  the  change  of  seasons 
or  the  first  snow  storm1?  No  objects  that  are  presented  to 
the  child  so  stimulate  his  thought  and  become  such  food  for 
his  fancy  as  the  heavenly  bodies  and  cosmic  phenomena. 
Many  of  their  minds  are  filled  with  myths  about  the  stars 
that  are  as  original  and  beautiful  in  conception,  though  lack- 
ing in  detail,  as  much  of  the  Greek  mythology. 

The  recurrence  of  the  day  of  the  year  upon  which  some 
event  has  happened  is  commemorated  as  a  day  of  joy  or 
sorrow  according  to  the  nature  of  the  event.  All  national 
and  religious  festivals  recur  once  a  year.  Among  primitive 
peoples  worship  takes  place  always  at  the  same  time  of  day 
or  year,  and  the  same  might  be  said  of  most  enlightened 
people.  There  seems  now,  and  always  has  seemed,  a 
peculiar  appropriateness  in  performing  certain  duties  at  the 
same  time  of  day  or  year,  although  it  does  not  necessarily 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  weather  or  of  the  event.  The 
Christian  Sabbath  and  other  religious  festivals,  both  savage 
and  civilized,  find  their  origin  in  the  nature  worship  of  the 
sun  and  the  moon. 


RHYTHM.  5 

There  are  still  other  rhythms  in  the  cosmos  which  seem  to 
exercise  an  influence  upon  mankind.  Sun  spots  make  their 
appearance  in  great  numbers  once  in  about  eleven  years,  and 
the  attempt  has  been  made  to  connect  these  with  great 
financial  disasters  and  religious  awakenings  which  seem  to 
recur  in  the  same  time.  The  social  customs  of  the  race 
show  similar  changes,  which  may  prove  to  have  some  con- 
nection with  sun  spots.  The  coincidence  warrants  an  in- 
vestigation and  allows  speculation. 

Upon  the  morbid  side  science  has  made  discoveries  of  the 
most  striking  character.  Even  from  the  earliest  times  a 
periodicity  has  been  observed  in  certain  forms  of  insanity 
and  in  other  mental  diseases.  These  have  been  confirmed  by 
later  investigations.1  Both  crime  and  suicide  show  a 
periodicity  which  corresponds  with  the  year,  and  another 
which  corresponds  to  the  larger  period  of  sun  spots. 

Physiological  Ehythms : — No  fact  is  more  familiar  to  the 
physiologist  than  the  rhythmic  character  of  many  physio- 
logical processes.  In  physiology  it  means  the  regular  alter- 
nation of  periods  of  activity  and  periods  of  repose  or  of  lesser 
activity.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  any  alternation  of 
activity  and  repose,  whether  it  is  regular  or  not.  These 
periods  of  activity  and  intervals  of  repose  may  succeed  one 
another  at  very  small  intervals  of  time,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
clonic  contraction  of  the  muscle,  or  at  very  much  greater 
intervals,  as  in  the  case  of  sleep  and  waking,  or  better  still,  in 
the  periods  of  growth  in  children.  Several  of  the  most  vital  ^ 
and  important  bodily  activities  are  distinctly  rhythmical,  and 
will  serve  as  types  of  all  physiological  rhythms.  Of  these, 
might  be  mentioned  the  pulse,  respiration,  walking  and 
speech.  The  first  two  are  involuntary  actions,  which  in  the 
very  nature  of  the  organism  must  be  more  or  less  rhythmical. 
Such  actions  are  controlled  by  the  lower  nerve  centres,  and 
the  organs  concerned  in  them  are  connected  in  a  reflex  arc 
with  these  nerve  centres.  Habits  are  in  the  nature  of  invol- 
untary  actions.  Of  these,  walking  and  speech  are  the  most 
important  and  are  true  types  of  rhythmical  activity.  In  each 
there  is  a  series  of  coordinated  muscles  in  which  the  contrac- 
tion of  one  is  the  signal  for  the  contraction  of  the  next  in  the  __ 
series,  the  last  acting  as  a  stimulus  to  the  first. 

Independent  of  the  regular  beat  of  the  heart  and  forming  a 
kind  of  higher  grouping  of  these  beats,  the  arteries  undergo 
continuously  rhythmical  contractions  and  dilations  of  their 

1  Dr.  Koster,  "Uber  die  Gesetze  des  periodischen  Irreseins  und 
verwandter  Nervenzustande."    Bohn,  1882. 
Dr.  Ludwig,  "  Periodischen  Psychosen."    Stuttgart,  1878. 


6  BOLTON  : 

walls,  now  increasing  and  now  decreasing  the  blood  supply. 
These  may  be  observed  with  a  glass  in  the  arteries  of  a  frog's 
foot  or  a  rabbit's  ear,  occurring  about  once  a  minute.  They 
may  be  made  to  cease  entirely  by  cutting  off  the  nerves  going 
to  these  organs. x  These  arteries  are  controlled  by  the  vaso- 
motor  system,  and  the  rhythmic  contractions  of  the  arteries 
seem  to  indicate  a  rhythm  in  the  activity  of  the  nerve 
centres.  As  we  shall  see  later,  there  is  some  ground  for 
believing  that  all  nervous  action  is  rhythmical.  Eegular 
contractions  occur  in  the  heart  of  some  animals  after  they 
have  been  removed  from  the  body,  and  are  found  to  be  due 
probably  to  the  presence  of  nerve  ganglia  in  these  organs.8 
The  effect  of  deficient  arterialization  upon  the  vaso-motor 
system  is  to  cause  a  rise  in  the  curve  of  blood  pressure. 
This  curve,  then,  shows  certain  undulations,  which  have 
been  called  Traube-Hering  curves,  from  their  discoverer. 
This  result  is  obtained  by  cutting  the  vagi  nerve  and 
stopping  respiration.  The  venus  blood  then  acts  as  a 
stimulus  upon  the  vaso-motor  centres  in  the  medulla, 
which  causes  these  rhythmic  movements.  "This  rhythmic 
rise3  must  be  due  to  the  rhythmic  contraction  of  the  arteries, 
and  this  is  caused  by  a  rhythmic  discharge  from  the  vaso- 
motor  centres."  "  The  vaso-motor  nervous  system  is  apt  to 
fall  into  a  condition  of  rhythmic  activity."  A  similar 
phenomenon  has  been  thought  to  be  observed  in  regard  to 
the  spinal  cord. 

When  the  spinal  cord4  of  a  dog,  cat  or  rabbit  was  cut, 
rhythmical  contractions  of  the  sphincter  ani  and  of  the 
vagina  appeared.  These  contractions  vary  in  number,  but 
are  generally  about  twenty  per  minute  for  the  sphincter  ani 
and  four  per  minute  for  the  vagina.  The  centre  for  these 
contractions  was  found  to  be  in  the  spinal  cord,  about  the 
level  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  lumbar  vertebrae  in  rabbits  and 
of  the  fifth  lumbar  vertebra  in  dogs. 


1  Foster's  "Physiology,"  6th  Ed.  p.  307. 

Dr.  Ellis,  working  under  Dr.  Bowditch,  has  studied  these  contrac- 
tions in  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot  with  the  microscope.  He  says  that 
cutting  the  sciatic  nerve  does  not  stop  them,  and  concludes  that 
they  are  due  to  peripheral  centres,  unless  he  be  allowed  to  suppose 
that  automatic  contractility  is  a  property  of  smooth  muscle  tissue. 
Plethysmographic  and  vaso-motor  experiments  with  frogs.  Jour, 
of  Phys.  Vol.  VI.  No.  6,  p.  437. 

2  Foster's  "Physiology,"  6th  Ed.  p.  357. 

3  Foster's  "Physiology  "  6th  Ed.  p.  622. 

4  Isaac  Ott,  "Observations  upon  the  Physiology  of  the  Spinal 
Cord."      Studies  from  Biol.  Lab.   at  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
No.  II. 


RHYTHM.  7 

Fatigue  shows  itself  to  be  a  rhythmical  process.  Dr. 
Lombard1  worked  upon  the  flexor  muscle  of  the  second 
finger.  After  contracting  the  muscle  several  times,  lifting 
each  time  a  weight,  he  gradually  lost  the  power  of  further 
contraction,  but  he  continued  to  make  the  effort  at  regular 
intervals  of  two  seconds.  In  a  short  time  he  regained  his 
former  power,  which  he  maintained  for  several  minutes,  and 
then  gradually  lost  it  again.  About  five  periods  of  alter- 
nating loss  and  recovery  took  place  in  twelve  minutes.  By 
variations  in  the  methods  of  experimentation,  the  different 
factors  are  eliminated,  and  he  is  able  to  conclude  that  the 
centre  of  voluntary  control  is  unaffected,  but  that  this 
periodicity  is  dependent  upon  ' '  alterations  which  take  place 
in  some  of  the  mechanisms  between  the  areas  of  the  brain 
originating  the  will  impulses  and  the  centrifugal  nerves.'7  Dr. 
Hodge2  found  that  when  he  stimulated  the  spinal  ganglia  of  a 
cat  continuously  with  an  interrupted  current,  no  change 
of  the  cell  took  place.  When  he  applied  his  interrupted 
current  for  a  quarter  of  a  second  and  allowed  the  cell  to  rest 
three-quarters,  a  change  took  place  in  the  nucleus  of  the  cell. 
These  experiments  are  inconclusive,  as  in  the  first  case  the 
animal  was  given  curari  and  in  the  second  it  was  not.  Dr. 
Burgerstein3  tested  a  number  of  school  children  by  their 
ability  to  multiply  and  add  figures  for  four  successive  periods 
of  ten  minutes,  with  five  minutes'  interval  between  the 
periods  of  work.  During  the  third  period  there  was  a 
marked  falling  off  in  the  amount  of  work  accomplished  and 
an  increase  again  during  the  fourth  period.  He  argues  that 
the  pupils  became  fatigued  during  the  first  two  periods,  and 
that  the  third  was  a  period  of  recovery,  since  the  normal 
amount  of  work  was  shown  again  in  the  fourth. 

The  secondary  rhythm  observed  in  the  circulation  occurs 
also  in  respiration.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  respira- 
tion follows  a  rhythm  of  about  fifteen  or  twenty  a  minute. 
During  certain  diseases  and  sleep  a  secondary  rhythm — 
Cheyne-Stokes4  curves — appears  in  respiration.  The  respira- 
tory movements  decrease  in  depth  until  they  disappear  entirely. 
After  an  interval  of  a  few  seconds  a  slight  movement  occurs. 
This  is  followed  by  others,  which  increase  in  strength  until 
they  become  normal  and  sometimes  abnormally  strong.  Two 
explanations  are  offered  :  first,  a  waxing  a  ad  waning  in  the 
nutrition  of  the  respiratory  centres,  and  second,  a  rhythmic 

1  Warren  P.  Lombard,  M.  D.,    "Effect  of  Fatigue  upon  Muscular 
Contractions."    AMER.  JOUR.  OF  PSY.  Vol.  III. 

2  u  Microscopical  Study  of  Changes  due  to  Functional  Activity  in 
Nerve  Cells."    Jour,  of  Morphology,  Vol.  VII. 

3  Die  Arbeitskurve  einer  Stunde.    Zeitachr.f.  Schulges.  IV.  9,  10. 
*  Foster's  "  Physiology,"  6th  Ed.  p.  605. 


8  BOLTON  : 

increase  and  decrease  in  the  inhibitory  impulses  playing  upon 
the  centres.  The  latter  explanation  is  favored.  This, 
however,  simply  assigns  the  rhythmic  action  to  some  other 
centre  and  does  not  explain  the  phenomenon.  A  certain 
amount  of  secondary  rhythm  takes  place  in  the  breathing  of 
hibernating  animals.  Eespiration  appears  almost  to  cease 
and  then  to  start  again,  but  it  is  generally  slower  during 
hibernation. 

Growth  appears  to  take  place  rhythmically.  Distinct 
periods  of  activity  and  rest  occur  in  the  embryonic  develop- 
ment of  some  species  that  have  been  observed.  This  has 
been  seen  in  the  segmentation  of  pulmonates'  eggs.1  It  is  no 
less  true  of  the  amblystoma.  In  these  the  periods  of  activity 
last  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  are  succeeded  by  inter- 
vals of  repose  lasting  about  forty- five  minutes.  The  activity 
of  the  protoplasm  offers  a  resistance  which  must  be  overcome 
by  the  energy  arising  from  the  assimilation  of  the  granular 
food  material,  which  disappears  as  development  proceeds. 
During  the  period  of  repose  the  energy  is  accumulating  from 
this  assimilation,  which,  when  it  becomes  sufficient,  overcomes 
the  resistance,  and  activity  sets  in.  This  is  taken  to  be  a  type 
of  physiological  and  nervous  activity,  which  will  serve  to 
explain  certain  phenomena  of  rhythm.  This  rhythm  in 
growth,  which  is  observed  in  the  embryonic  development,  is 
characteristic  of  the  physical  and  mental  growth  of  children. 
For  several  years  previous  to  puberty,  great  increase  in 
stature  is  observed,  puberty  itself  being  a  period  of  slow 
growth.  From  fifteen  to  eighteen  is  another  period  of  growth, 
in  which  the  full  stature  is  generally  reached.  The  mental 
character  of  children  shows  also  periods  of  activity  and 
repose. 2  The  bright  child  becomes  dull  and  the  tidy  slovenly. 
The  leader  in  the  athletic  sports  is  now  lazy  and  moping. 
Memory  is  now  predominant,  and  now  reason.  The  child 
passes  from  one  form  of  activity  to  another.  The  line  of 
development  goes  zigzag  to  its  goal. 

Other  examples  of  involuntary  action  might  be  mentioned. 
These  are  the  peristaltic  contractions  of  the  intestines,  labor 
pains,  the  recurrence  of  heat  and  of  the  menstrual  flow,  and 
the  secretions  of  the  digestive  cell.  In  these  cells  the  secre- 
tions are  kept  up  for  about  six  hours,  when  a  period  of  repose 
of  about  twenty-four  hours  follows. 3 

1  W.  K.  Brooks,    "Fresh  Water  Pulmonates."      Studies    from 
Biol.  Lab.  at  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Vol.  II. 

2  G.  Siegert,  ''Die  Periodicitat  in  der  Entwickelung  des  Kindes- 
natur." 

3  J.  M.  Langley  and  Sewell,  "Histology  and  Physiology  of  Pepsin- 
forming  Glands."    Phil.  Trans.  Vol.  CLXXII.  pp.  663-711.    London, 
1882. 


RHYTHM.  9 

From  this  review  it  may  be  safely  said  that  nervous  action 
in  general,  and  especially  of  the  lower  and  vaso-motor  centres, 
is  rhythmical.  This  form  of  activity  results  from  the  resist- 
ance which  the  nervous  substance  offers  to  a  stimulus.  A 
certain  amount  of  energy  is  necessary  to  overcome  this 
resistance.  This  fact  is  brought  out  by  the  experiments  of 
Helmholtz1  and  Sterling  upon  the  summation  of  stimuli. 
Helmholtz  found  that  when  he  stimulated  a  nerve  going  to  a 
muscle  by  a  submaximal  stimulus  and  then  added  another 
stimulus  at  any  time  afterward  within  four  seconds,  he  ob- 
tained a  contraction.  If  he  used  a  maximal  stimulus  in  the 
first  place  and  then  added  another  stimulus  during  the  latent 
period,  it  produced  no  effect  upon  the  contraction  due  to  the 
first  stimulus.  But  if  the  second  stimulus  was  added  after 
the  latent  period,  the  effect  was  a  greater  contraction  than 
that  which  followed  the  first  stimulus  alone.  Submaximal 
stimuli2  following  one  another,  even  as  slow  as  one  per  second, 
will  produce  a  contraction  after  a  time.  As  the  frequency  of 
the  stimulus  increases,  the  effect  is  much  more  marked.  It 
is  much  better  to  increase  the  frequency  of  the  stimulus  with- 
out increasing  the  strength  than  to  increase  the  strength 
alone.  Sterling  adds  further  that  all  muscular  and  nervoua 
action  is  due  to  summated  stimuli — a  conclusion  that  denies 
the  possibility  of  contractions  due  to  one  instantaneous  shock 
or  at  least  does  not  explain  them.  Dr.  Ward3  determined 
that  between  the  rates  of  .4  sec.  and  .03  sec.  a  contraction 
always  followed  a  given  number  of  stimuli.  Above  and  be- 
low these  limits  the  number  might  vary.  In  the  same  line  is 
the  work  of  Drs.  Kronacker  and  Hall. 

It  has  been  held  by  Sterling  and  others  that  when  a  stimu- 
lus is  applied  directly  to  the  cortex,  no  matter  what  the  rate, 
the  brain  sent  out  rhythmic  impulses  always  at  a  constant 
rate.  Dr.  Limbeck4  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  upon 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  in  which  he  finds  that  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  send  out  just  as  many  impulses  as  they 
receive.  Faster  rates  than  thirteen  shocks  per  second  for 
the  cortex  and  thirty-four  for  the  cord,  gave  smooth  curves. 

1  Helmholtz,    "Berichte  der  Berliner  Akad."    1854,  p.  358. 

2W.  Sterling,  "  Uber  die  Summation  electrischer  Hautreize.'^ 
Berlin.  Berichte  d.  Sachsgelschaft  d.  Wissenschaft.  December, 
1874,  p.  372. 

3  Dr.  Ward,  "  Uber  die  Auslosung  von  Reflexbewegungen  durch 
einer  Summe  schwacker  Reize."  Archiv  fur  Anatomie  und  Physiol- 
ogie.  1880,  p.  72. 

Hugo  Kronacker  und  G.  Stanley  Hall.  Die  willkurliche  Muske- 
laction.  Archiv  fur  Anatomie  und  Physiologic,  1879. 

4 Dr.  R.  U.  Limbeck,  "Uber  den  Rhythmus  centralie  Reize." 
Archiv  fur  experimentale  Pathologie.  Bd.  XXV.  H.  2. 


10  BOLTON  : 

The  difference  between  the  rates  for  cortex  and  cord  is  worthy 
of  note  in  consequence  of  the  close  correspondence  of  the 
number  of  shocks  for  the  cortex  and  the  rate  of  the  most 
rapid  voluntary  control ;  while  involuntary  and  clonic  con- 
tractions which  find  their  seats  in  the  lower  centres  and  in 
the  cord  may  be  much  faster.  In  this  connection  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader  is  called  to  that  portion  of  the  experimental 
study  in  which  the  rate  of  clicks  at  which  rhythmical  grouping 
ceases  is  set  forth.  It  is  not  far  from  ten  a  second.  This  is 
also  near  the  lowest  rate  at  which  air  vibrations  give  the 
impression  of  a  musical  tone. 

The  theory  of  summated  stimuli  which  was  advanced  by 
Wundt,  and  which  is  generally  accepted,  is  based  upon  the 
resistance  which  a  central  cell  offers  to  a  stimulus.  The  in- 
coming stimulus  is  not  communicated  directly  to  the  cell. 
The  afferent  nerve  does  not  terminate  in  the  cell,  but  breaks 
up  into  branches,  which  form  a  kind  of  envelope  about  the 
cell.  The  efferent  nerve  takes  its  rise  in  the  nucleus  of  the 
cell  and  proceeds  towards  the  periphery.  If  the  stimulus  is 
weak,  it  does  not  penetrate  through  the  surface  of  the  cell  to 
the  nucleus,  but  only  part  way.  It  sets  up  a  kind  of  disturb- 
ance around  the  surf  ace  of  the  cell  and,  should  another  stimulus 
follow  before  the  disturbance  has  subsided,  it  adds  to  the 
effect  already  produced.  Eepeated  stimuli  still  further  in- 
crease the  disturbance  until  it  penetrate  to  the  nucleus  of 
the  cell,  when  it  causes  the  cell  to  discharge  into  the  efferent 
nerve.  This  serves  very  well  for  summated  stimuli,  but 
other  phenomena  of  just  the  opposite  nature  require  ex- 
planation. There  are  the  soothing  effects  of  slow  and  gentle 
stroking  or  patting,  such  as  hypnotizers  and  nurses  use  upon 
their  subjects.  The  general  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  stimu- 
lus must  not  rise  much  above  the  threshold,  and  be  sufficiently 
slow,  that  there  shall  be  no  summation.  As  we  shall  see  later, 
any  repeated  stimulus  tends  to  take  the  form  of  a  muscular 
movement  accompanying  it.  If  this  stimulus  becomes 
gradually  slower,  it  leads  finally  to  the  concept  of  rest,  and 
being  accompanied  by  muscular  movements,  these  movements 
must  finally  cease.  Increased  quietude  follows  the  slowly 
decreasing  movements,  until  before  a  great  interval  of  time 
has  elapsed  the  body  falls  into  a  state  of  rest.  The  stimulus 
must  in  any  case  be  sufficient  to  command  the  attention  of 
the  subject  to  the  exclusion  of  the  disturbing  effects  of  other 
stimuli  coming  from  without  and  from  the  involuntary  pro- 
cesses of  the  body.  Let  us  return  now  to  the  nerve  cell,  to 
find  if  there  are  any  processes  going  on  which  will  throw 
light  upon  the  problem.  A  weak  stimulus  is  continually 
playing  upon  the  cell  from  without,  but  never  rises  sufficiently 


EHYTHM.  11 

in  strength  to  penetrate  beyond  the  periphery  of  the  cell  or 
in  rapidity  to  bring  about  a  summation.  The  effect  of  each 
stimulus  subsides  before  the  following  one  reaches  the  cell. 
The  peripheral  area  must  soon  become  fatigued  so  that  it  is  no 
longer  able  to  respond  to  the  stimulus,  and  yet  it  is  sufficiently 
strong  to  command  the  attention  in  so  far  as  to  distract  it 
from  other  stimuli  coming  from  within.  This  is  the  condition 
of  quietude  in  the  cell  which  is  manifest  in  the  muscle. 

Attention  and  Periodicity: — The  most  casual  observer  will 
discover  that  his  attention  is  discontinuous  and  intermittent. 
It  manifests  itself  in  a  wave-like  form.  It  is  a  series  of 
pulses.  The  mind  does  not  rest  for  any  length  of  time  upon 
a  single  object.  New  phases  and  relations  must  continually 
appear,  or  the  object  is  dropped,  that  another  may  be  taken 
up.  "  No  one  can  possibly  attend  continuously  to  an  object 
that  does  not  change."1  This  process  has  been  described  as 
a  "fly  and  perch.7'  Charles  Pierce  says  in  his  "Philosophy 
of  Attention"  that  there  is  "no  continuum."  This  periodicity 
in  attention  has  been  observed  by  Helmholtz2  with  the 
stereoscope  and  commented  upon  at  considerable  length. 
The  phenomenon  is  called  retinal  rivalry.  Mr.  T.  Reed8  re- 
cords some  observations  which  he  made  in  combining  two 
stereoscopic  views,  which  were  ruled,  the  one  with  vertical, 
and  the  other  with  horizontal  lines.  He  finds  that  the  whole 
field  will  be  occupied  for  a  time  with  one  view,  and  then  this 
gives  way  for  the  other,  which  lasts  an  equal  time.  They  seem 
to  change  without  voluntary  effort  and  even  in  spite  of  one's 
efforts  to  keep  one  view  in  the  field.  The  full  time  for  a 
change  from  one  to  the  other  and  back  again  is  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  seconds  for  different  subjects.  The  pulses  of  at- 
tention, however,  seem  to  succeed  one  another  at  much 
shorter  intervals.  Two  seconds  seem  a  long  time  to  hold 
any  object  which  has  no  relation  before  the  attention.  James 
says  :  "  There  is  no  such  thing  as  voluntary  attention  sus- 
tained for  more  than  a  few  seconds  at  a  time."  Does  it  not, 
then,  seem  reasonable  that  during  each  wave  or  pulse  of 
attention  only  one  undivided  state  of  consciousness  can  arise? 
The  waxing  and  waning  of  attention  seem  to  mark  a  change 
from  one  object  of  consciousness  to  another.  The  object  of 
the  state  may  be  very  complex,  but  it  stands  as  a  unit  in 
consciousness.  The  problem  of  the  relation  of  the  parts  of 
the  object  by  which  a  great  many  may  be  allowed  to  stand  as 


p.  420. 
32. 


12  BOLTON  : 

a  unit  in  consciousness  and  be  grasped  in  a  single  state,  is  of 
the  most  vital  importance,  but  it  must  be  deferred  until  later, 
when  the  normal  period  of  a  wave  of  attention  will  also  be 
discussed. 

Rhythmic  Speech: — The  most  distinguishing,  and  in  many 
respects  the  most  important,  function  of  the  human  body  is 
vocal  utterance  and  articulate  speech.  Being  an  involuntary 
and  habitual  function  in  a  large  measure,  it  might  be  expected 
upon  a  priori  grounds  to  be  rhythmical.  Speech  becomes 
rhythmical  not  simply  by  sounds  succeeded  by  pauses,  but 
also  by  the  regular  recurrence  of  strongly  accented  sounds  in 
a  series.  Aside  from  the  simplest  shout  or  exclamation  of 
joy  or  pain,  all  vocal  utterances  are  primarily  rhythmical. 
Every  word  that  contains  more  than  one  syllable  consists  of 
strong  and  weak  syllables.  These  accents  occur  upon  every 
other  syllable  in  varying  intensity,  or  at  most  the  accented 
syllables  are  separated  by  two  unaccented  syllables.  As 
regards  vocal  utterances,  they  can  be  considered  from  four 
different  aspects — their  regular  succession,  intensity,  pitch 
and  quality.  The  problem  in  a  philosophical  treatment  of 
rhythmic  speech  is  to  determine  the  value  of  these  properties 
of  sound  as  unifying  elements  in  a  rhythmical  production. 
It  will  be  necessary  first  to  inquire  which  is  the  most  funda- 
mental, and  secondly,  where  each  enters  and  the  part  it  plays 
in  the  development  of  literature.  We  must  seek  also  other 
unifying  principles,  if  such  there  be.  Of  these,  we  might 
now  mention  the  logical  meaning  of  words — the  theme — and 
a3sthetic  forms.  As  we  are  concerned  in  speech  in  so  far  only 
as  rhythmical  effects  are  aimed  at,  we  shall  speak  only  of 
poetry.  By  what  coordinations  and  subordinations  of  sounds 
with  respect  to  their  properties  and  meanings  is  the  whole 
structure  of  the  poem  held  together  ?  It  is  the  same  problem 
which  Plato  discussed  as  the  one  and  the  many.  Kant  put 
the  same  question  by  asking  how  the  mind  made  a  unity  out 
of  a  manifold.  We  have  to  ask  how  the  mental  span  becomes 
so  enormously  increased  as  to  grasp  such  a  poem  as  Words- 
worth's "  Intimations  of  Immortality  from  the  Eecollections 
of  Childhood,'' or  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost."  How  is  the 
carrying  power  of  the  mind  increased  to  such  an  extent? 
The  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  unities  are  formed 
out  of  the  simplest  elements  of  speech  by  coordinating  some 
with  others  in  respect  to  their  time  relations;  secondly, 
unities  are  formed  of  unities  by  subordinating  them  with 
respect  to  their  intensities,  and  sometimes,  their  time  values; 
thirdly,  by  coordinations  and  subordinations  with  respect  to 
intensities  and  qualities,  higher  unities  still  are  formed  ;  and 


RHYTHM.  13 

fourthly,  by  coordinations  and  subordinations  with  respect 
to  theme  and  aesthetic  forms,  the  greatest  unities  are  accom- 
plished. In  the  first  place  vocal  utterances  are  related  as 
regards  time,  that  is,  the  same  sound  may  recur  at  regular 
intervals,  in  which  case  the  series  thus  formed  might  be 
termed  a  rhythmic  series — a  series  which  may  become 
rhythmical.  In  the  next  place  this  series  might  be  made  up  of 
louder  and  weaker  sounds  alternating  with  each  other.  The 
series  would  then  be  composed  of  groups  of  sounds  and  might  be 
called  a  rhythmical  series.  This  is  a  rhythm  in  speech.  If 
now  the  louder  sounds  in  each  group  were  given  different 
intensities,  these  smaller  groups  might  be  brought  into  larger 
groups  still.  In  this  way  the  mental  span  may  be  made  to 
extend  itself  over  a  very  large  number  of  simple  impressions. 
The  principle  is  very  clear,  and  one  will  see  at  a  glance  that 
if  intelligible  sounds  were  used  and  qualitative  changes  em- 
ployed, the  mental  span  might  be  almost  indefinitely  extended. 
The  carrying  power  of  the  mind,  however,  does  not  rest 
wholly  in  any  case  upon  a  single  fact,  if  we  make  the  excep- 
tion that  vocal  utterances  must  be  carefully  timed  in  a 
rhythmic  series.  Quality  and  pitch  changes  accompany 
changes  in  intensity,  so  that  the  subordination  of  one  sound  to 
another  and  their  consequent  unification  with  respect  to 
intensity  is  always  dependent  upon  pitch  and  quality  changes 
as  well.  For  this  reason  it  is  impossible  to  treat  each 
properly  by  itself. 

Time-relations: — In  order  for  vocal  utterances  to  form  a 
rhythmic  series,  they  must  occur  at  regular  intervals  of  time 
which  cannot  exceed  or  fall  much  below  certain  limits.  We 
may,  however,  upon  the  analogy  of  physiological  rhythms,  re- 
gard a  series  of  sounds  recurring  at  stated  intervals  as  a  rhyth- 
mical series,  and  also  regard  the  recurrence  of  accented  sounds 
as  forming  a  secondary  rhythm  out  of  the  primary.  This  is 
carrying  the  rhythmical  idea  farther  than  has  been  customary, 
and  while  it  is  more  nearly  correct,  it  would  not  be  generally 
understood.  The  question  of  the  time  values  of  vocal  utter- 
ances for  rhythmical  purposes  cannot  be  answered  upon  an 
examination  of  poetry  itself.  Although  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans  assigned  exact  values  to  all  syllables  in  their  lan- 
guage, there  is  reason  for  believing  that  such  values  did  not 
arise  naturally,  but  were  assigned  when  they  began  to  specu- 
late upon  poetry.  Ko  such  relations  exist  among  the  sylla- 
bles of  modern  languages,  and  in  English  they  never  did. 
We  must  then  dismiss  the  subject  of  time  and  its  significance 
and  revert  to  it  as  the  subject  permits. 


14  BOLTON  : 

Intensity  of  Sounds: — The  mind  accomplishes  its  first 
real  unification  of  sounds  by  subordinating  them  with  respect 
to  their  intensities.  A  rhythm  in  speech  means  a  series  of 
groups  of  sounds.  Each  group  may  contain  two  or  more 
sounds,  generally  not  more  than  four.  Two  sounds,  one 
strong  and  one  weak,  the  one  succeeding  the  other  in  time, 
cannot  give  an  idea  of  a  rhythm,  but  two  groups  of  two 
such  sounds  certainly  can.  This  being  the  simplest  possible 
rhythm,  we  should  expect  that  it  would  be  the  earliest 
form  in  which  literature  appeared.  Since  we  have  not 
probably  any  extant  specimens  of  the  first  literary  productions, 
for  they  were  not  committed  to  writing,  we  must  judge  from 
those  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  later  periods,  and 
from  the  literature  of  primitive  peoples  and  of  children, 
what  the  earliest  form  was.  In  this  way  it  has  been  proved 
that  our  surmise,  which  was  made  upon  a  priori  ground 
simply,  is  correct.  The  oldest  extant  specimens  of  English 
poetry  are  generally  composed  of  verses  of  two  sections, 
which  are  separated  by  a  pause  in  the  middle.  Each  section 
generally  contains  four,  sometimes  six,  syllables,  two  of 
which  are  unaccented  and  two  accented.  The  first  section 
was  emphatic  and  corresponded  to  the  accented  syllable  in 
the  smaller  division ;  the  second  section  received  less  stress 
and  was  less  important.  The  two  formed  a  kind  of  balance 
structure,  in  which  the  first  section  contained  a  rise  and  the 
second  a  fall. 

helle  heafas:  hearde  nithas. 
wer  leas  werod:  waldend  sende. 
graes  ungrande :  gar  secg  theahte.1 

11  Our  Anglo-Saxon2  poems  consist  of  certain  versicles,  or, 
as  we  have  hitherto  termed  them,  sections,  bound  together  in 

pairs  by  the  laws  of  alliteration For  the  most  part 

these  sections  contain  two  or  three  accents,  but  some  are 
found  containing  four,  or  even  five.  The  greater  number  of 
these  sections  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  which  generally 

fulfill  all  the   conditions   of  an   alliterative    couplet " 

These  are  the  rules  that  Guest  gives  according  to  which  the 
elementary  sections  were  constructed :  1.  "  Each  couplet  of 
adjacent  accents  must  be  separated  by  one  or  two  syllables 
which  are  unaccented,  but  not  by  more  than  two."  2.  "No 
section  can  have  more  than  three  or  less  than  two  accents. ' '  3 . 
"No  section  can  begin  or  end  with  more  than  two  unaccented 
syllables."  "  When  the  accents  of  a  section  are  separated 

1  These  lines  are  copied  just  as  they  appear  in  Guest's  "  His- 
tory of  English  Rhythms,"  p.  189. 

2  Guest's  "History  of  English  Rhythms,"  p.  158. 


RHYTHM.  15 

by  two  unaccented  syllables,  the  rhythm  has  been  called 
triple  measure ;  and  the  common  measure,  when  they  are 
only  separated  by  a  single  syllable. "  The  greater  propor- 
tional number  of  accents  makes  the  movement  slower,  and 
adapts  the  measure  for  more  solemn  and  graver  subjects. 
The  triple  measure  is  more  suited  to  lighter  themes.  The 
verse  of  the  common  measure  is  made  more  energetic  by  be- 
ing begun  and  closed  with  accented  syllables.  T^hey  are 
abrupt  when  too  short,  and  become  feeble  when  too  long. 
There  was  considerable  variety  of  rhythm  as  early  as  the 
fifth  century,  tl  as  there  certainly  was  in  the  seventh  century, 
when  Csedmon  wrote."1  "It  is,  however,  probable  that  the 
rhythms  were  of  a  simpler  and  of  a  more  uniform  character. '  > 
.  .  .  .  "Most  of  the  alliterative  couplets  have  only  four 
accents — very  few,  indeed,  have  so  many  as  six." 

The  phenomenon  of  accompanying  the  changes  of  intensity  ! 
in  a  series  of  sounds  with  muscular  contractions,  led  to  the 
early  association  of  dancing  with  musical  and  poetical; 
recitation.  Indeed,  if  we  accept  the  current  theory  of  the 
origin  of  language  as  arising  during  the  celebrations  of 
victory,  dancing  precedes  even  language.  Just  as  an 
animal  jumps  and  frisks  about  as  an  expression  of  pleasure 
at  seeing  his  master,  so  our  ancestors  danced  for  joy  over  a 
victory,  or  in  the  worship  of  their  deity.  They  emitted  cer- 
tain vocal  utterances  in  company  with  the  tramping  of  the 
feet,  which  in  time  came  to  have  definite  meanings  and  also 
took  on  the  rhythm  of  the  dance.  This  rhythm  was  scarcely 
more  than  the  simple  swaying  of  the  b'ody  or  the  lifting  of 
one  foot  and  now  the  other.  Variations  in  the  dance  might 
occur  either  in  taking  several  steps  forward  and  then  several 
backward,  or  to  the  right  and  to  the  left.  These  variations 
would  produce  corresponding  effects  in  the  vocal  accompani- 
ment. The  step  of  one  foot  would  be  stronger  and  a  more 
intense  sound  made  to  correspond  to  it.  In  the  same  way 
either  the  forward  or  backward  movement  would  become  the 
more  important  and  give  rise  to  the  distinction  of  thesis  and 
arsis  of  the  verse.  Further  groupings  of  the  verses  might 
take  place  in  the  same  way.  The  two-rhythm  was  appar- 
ently the  prevailing  rhythm  in  the  history  of  our  language,  if 
not  in  some  others.  The  most  common  foot  in  our  literature 
of  all  times,  and  a  very  common  foot  in  the  Greek  literature, 
consisted  of  two  syllables  ;  two  feet  entered  into  the  section, 
and  two  sections  formed  an  alliterated  couplet  or  verse.  It 
is  the  simplest  possible  rhythm,  and  corresponds  to  the  leg- 
pendulum  with  which  the  language  was  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated in  its  earlier  history. 

1  Quest's  "History  of  English  Rhythms,"  p.  169. 


16  BOLTON  : 

Noire1  believes  that  language  took  its  rise  in  the  concerted 
action  of  many  persons.  In  this  way  the  individual  finds 
that  what  belongs  to  him  is  the  common  character  of  others. 
Such  utterances  as  uhi-ho"  are  taken  to  be  the  first  begin- 
nings of  language,  and  they  originate  during  concerted  action. 
Any  sound  that  is  to  become  intelligible  must  first  be  ex- 
perienced in  company  and  then  by  the  individual  alone.  But, 
as  the  example  shows,  such  utterances  are  rhythmical. 
Here  it  is  the  rhythm  of  heaving  sails  or  anchor,  which  is 
seen  among  sailors. 

Variations  in  the  number  of  syllables  to  the  accent  would 
be  a  necessity  as  a  relief  from  the  monotony  of  two  syllables 
to  the  accent,  and  so,  too,  the  number  of  accents  to  the  sec- 
tion would  be  increased  on  account  of  the  abruptness  of  the 
doubly  accented  section.  Taine2  in  speaking  of  early  Saxon 
poets  says:  "His  chief  care  is  to  abridge,  to  imprison 
thought  in  a  kind  of  mutilated  cry.' '  "  They  (Saxons)  do 
not  speak,  they  sing  or  rather  shout.  Each  little  verse  is  an 
acclamation  which  breaks  forth  like  a  growl.  Their  strong 
breasts  heave  with  a  groan  of  anger  or  of  enthusiasm.  A 
vehement  or  indistinct  phrase  or  expression  rises  suddenly, 
almost  in  spite  of  them,  to  their  lips."  After  the  people  be- 
came settled  down  in  their  new  homes,  they  lost  the  ruder  and 
rougher  characteristics,  and  such  wild  outpourings  would  be 
no  longer  suited  to  their  milder  spirits.  The  changes  that 
took  place  in  the  development  of  our  literature  are  due  in 
some  measure  to  the  change  in  the  life  and  habits  of  the 
people. 

There  still  remain  in  our  poetical  compositions  certain 
evidences  of  some,  at  least,  of  the  stages  through  which  our 
poetry  has  passed.  The  choruses  in  many  of  our  hymns  are 
still  made  up  of  non- sense  syllables.  Irish  melodies  and 
popular  songs  retain  this  feature.  Children's  poetry  —  by 
that  I  refer  to  such  poetry  as  they  enjoy  and  recite  for  their 
own  amusement — has  a  large  element  of  purely  unmeaning 
sounds  in  it.  Savage  dances  are  often  accompanied  by 
recitations  in  which  no  meaning  has  been  discovered.  Again, 
savages  and  children  are  frequently  found  repeating  for  their 
own  amusement  a  series  of  non- sense  syllables  in  rhythmical 
form.  The  accents  are  very  strongly  marked,  and  frequently 
enforced  by  alliteration.  The  incoherent  chatter  of  a  maniac, 
or  the  sound  of  a  foreigner  speaking  his  language  to  one  who 
is  unacquainted  with  the  language,  is  distinctly  rhythmical. 
It  is  more  like  a  chant,  and  children  frequently  remark  upon 

1  Ludwig  Noire,  "  Max  Miiller  and  the  Philosophy  of  Language." 

2  Taine,  "  Introduction  to  the  History  of  English  Language." 


RHYTHM.  17 

it.  It  appears,  then,  that  vocal  utterances  which  are  kept 
up  for  a  considerable  time  fall  into  a  rhythmical  form.  Such 
being  the  natural  tendency  of  speech,  it  would  conform  itself 
to  any  rhythm  with  which  it  might  be  associated,  and  as  vocal 
utterances  were  always  accompanied  by  the  dance,  it  would 
take  on  the  rhythm  of  the  dance,  which  in  its  earliest  forms 
we  have  seen  reason  to  believe  was  the  leg-pendulum. 

The  poetry  of  children  shows  a  character  very  similar  to 
early  English  poetry.  It  consists  often  of  a  two- section  verse 
which  is  strongly  alliterated,  and  in  which  the  rhythm  is 
perfectly  clear.  The  familiar  incantation  rhyme  shows  this 
characteristic  very  well. 

Sticks  and  stones 
May  break  my  bones, 
But  names  will  never  hurt  me. 

Again, 

Jack  and  Jill 

Went  up  the  hill 
To  fetch  a  pail  of  water; 

Jack  fell  down 

And  broke  his  crown 
And  Jill  came  tumbling  after. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  couplet  there  is  wanting  one 
syllable.  Their  poetry  is  usually  accompanied  by  marching 
or  by  clapping  of  the  hands,  so  that  they  require  an  accented 
syllable  at  the  beginning.  The  verse  is,  then,  an  alternation 
of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables  ;  occasionally  only  two 
unaccented  syllables  occur  between  two  accents.  We  have 
in  the  first  couplet  what  was  found  to  be  a  prominent 
characteristic  of  early  English  poetry. 

E.  B.  Taylor  in  his  " Anthropology'7  asserts  that  while  meter, 
and  by  that  he  means  lines  regularly  measured  in  syllables,  is 
an  evidence  of  civilization,  one  of  its  earliest  developments  is 
matched  and  balanced  sounds.  The  Australian  savage  sings 
at  the  end  of  his  verse,  "A.  bang!  A  bang!"  Certain  of  the 
North  American  Indians  sing  in  choruses,  "  Nyah  eh  wa! 
Kyah  eh  wa!"  The  chorus  of  a  New  Zealand  song  is 
"Ha-ah,  ha-ah,  ha-ah,  ha!"  A  feature  extremely  common 
in  barbaric  song  is  a  refrain  of  generally  meaningless  sylla- 
bles. Guest,1  speaking  of  our  early  poetry,  says,  "I  have 
hazarded  the  opinion  that  these  short,  abrupt  and  forcible 
rhythms  were  the  earliest  that  were  known  to  our  language. 
They  are  such  as  would  naturally  be  prompted  by  excited 
feeling,  and  well  fitted  for  those  lyrical  outpourings  which 
form  the  earliest  poetry  of  all  languages."  The  abruptness 

Quest's  "History  of  English  Rhythms,"  p.  365. 

2 


18  BOLTON  : 

is  felt  by  children,  so  that  not  more  than  a  single  couplet 
appears  without  the  intervention  of  a  different  kind  of  verse. 
Shakespeare1  adopted  this  measure  in  his  descriptions  of 
fairyland,  and  it  is  now  become  the  fairy  dialect  of  the 
English  language. 

Qualities  of  Sounds :  —  Qualities  of  sounds  are  quite  as 
important  as  unifying  elements  as  their  time  and  intensity 
relations,  and  were  quite  as  early  regarded.  This  is  mani- 
fest from  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  same  sound  at  the 
beginning  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Germanic  verses.  This  is 
alliteration.  The  two  sections  of  the  verse,  while  contrasted 
in  intensity,  were  coordinated  by  the  recurrence  of  the  same 
sound.  The  origin  of  alliteration  is  involved  in  some 
mystery,  and  yet  the  savage  shouts  just  quoted  point  out  a 
possible  origin.  The  emotional  shout  of  an  animal  for  a 
given  state  is  always  the  same ;  but  for  the  savage,  who 
possesses  greater  powers  of  utterance,  emotions  find  various 
expressions,  or  at  least,  if  the  expression  begins  with  the 
same  sound,  it  ends  differently.  Although  the  New  Zealand 
savage  shouts  "Ha-ah"  several  times  in  succession,  he 
closes  with  "  Ha!"  When  the  child  torments  his  companion 
in  the  midst  of  misfortune,  he  says  "  Goody,  goody  gout.77 
Other  expressions  of  a  similar  character,  but  used  with  a 
different  purpose,  are  "  higelty,  pigelty,"  "  hee-ho,"  etc. 
In  modern  poetry  alliteration  has  given  place  in  a  very  large 
measure  to  final  rhyme,  which  has  become  the  unifying  factor 
for  the  verse  generally  in  English  poetry  and  always  in 
French.  The  qualities  of  sounds  gave  rise  to  melody  in 
speech,  which  is  common  to  both  poetry  and  music,  and  it  is 
as  melody  that  the  qualities  of  sounds  play  the  most  impor- 
tant part. 

Spencer  holds,  in  his  essay  upon  the  origin  of  music,  that 
different  emotional  states  produce  different  intonations  and 
changes  in  pitch,  quality  and  loudness  of  vocal  utterances. 
In  the  savage  dances  of  victory,  worship,  and  love,  emotional 
speech  grew  up,  and  from  this  music  arose.  Originally 
music  was  recitative — a  mere  chant.  Chinese  and  Hindoo 
music  is  still  so.  This  recitative  speaking  grew  "naturally 
out  of  the  modulations  and  cadences  of  strong  feeling."  The 
Quaker  preacher  who  speaks  only  when  moved  by  religious 
emotion,  speaks  with  a  recitative  intonation,  and  church 
services  of  the  present  day  are  generally  read  so.  This  is 
really  melody.  Kecitative  speaking,  or  emotional  speech, 
constitutes  the  whole  of  savage  poetry. 

Poetry  and  music  among  primitive  peoples  were  the  same. 
Poetry  was  either  sung  or  chanted,  and  it  was  not  until  a 

1  Guest's  "  History  of  English  Rhythms,"  p.  179. 


RHYTHM.  19 

later  period  that  they  became  separated.  With  the  discovery 
of  the  musical  instrument,  the  people  saw  that  a  melody  was 
just  as  well  expressed  by  simple  tones  as  by  intelligible 
syllables,  and  music  took  up  its  own  lines  of  development. 

The  Emotional  Effects  of  Rhythm  upon  Savages  and  . 
Children ; — There  is  no  more  striking  fact  in  the  whole  field  | 
of  rhythm  than  the  emotional  effect  which  rhythms  produce  j 
upon  certain  classes  of  people,  savages  and  children.  Atten-  ' 
tion  has  already  been  called  to  the  psychological  phenomenon 
of  accompanying  the  changes  of  intensity  in  a  series  of 
sounds  by  muscular  movements.  So  strong  is  this  impulse 
in  all  classes  of  people  that  no  one  is  able  to  listen  to  music 
in  which  the  rhythm  is  strong  and  clear  without  making 
some  kind  of  muscular  movements.  With  some  people 
these  movements  tend  to  increase  in  force  until  the  whole 
body  becomes  involved  and  moves  with  the  rhythm.  The 
accents  in  the  rhythm  have  the  effect  of  summated  stimuli, 
and  the  excitement  may  increase  even  to  a  state  of  ecstasy 
and  catalepsy.  Although  the  regular  recurrence  of  the  ac- 
cented syllable  is  the  most  important  element,  the  qualita- 
tive changes  aid  in  bringing  about  the  emotional  states. 
Soothing  effects  result  from  certain  rhythms,  as  is  shown  in 
the  lulling  and  patting  of  the  baby  to  sleep.  The  early 
hypnotizers  resorted  to  the  gentle  stroking  of  their  subjects. 
Savages  are  well  aware  of  the  exciting  effects  of  certain 
rhythms,  and  are  accustomed  to  use  them  to  bring  about  the 
state  of  frenzy  in  which  their  priests  give  their  prophecies 
and  in  which  religious  dances  are  danced.  Mr.  Ellis, 1  who 
has  made  a  study  of  some  tribes  in  Africa,  says,  "  Music 
amongst  the  Thsi-speaking  tribes  is  limited  to  airs  possess- 
ing an  obvious  rhythm.  Such  airs  seem  to  appeal  to  the  ( 
primitive  sense  common  to  all  people,  but  upon  savages,  that  ; 
is,  upon  children  with  the  possession  and  power  of  men,  its 
influence  is  immense,  and  the  state  of  excitement  into  which 
an  assemblage  of  uncivilized  people  may  be  wrought  by  the 
mere  rhythm  of  drums  and  the  repetition  of  a  simple  melody 

would  hardly  be  created With  some  races  this  known 

emotional  influence  of  music  has  been  utilized  with  three 
objects,  viz.,  to  stimulate  the  religious  sentiments,  the  mar- 
tial spirit,  and  the  sexual  passions." 

In  the  Yatiati2  dance  among  the  Indians  of  British  Colum- 
bia, the  tribe  assembles  outside  of  the  chief's  house  in  which 
the  dance  is  to  be  held,  and  with  fists  and  sticks  they  beat 
the  time  on  the  walls  as  they  enter,  singing  the  dancing 

1  A.  B.  Ellis,  "The  Thsi-Speaking  Peoples  of  the  Gold  Coast  of 
West  Africa,"  p.  325. 

3  Franz  Boas,  Jour,  of  Amer.  Folk-lore,  Vol.  I.  p.  49. 


20  BOLTON  : 

song.  The  dancers  who  are  on  the  inside  are  worked  up 
into  a  frenzy.  The  gentle  striking  at  first,  gradually  increas- 
ing in  violence,  and  the  slow  approach  and  the  assemblage  of 
the  tribe,  wrought  in  the  dancers  a  pitch  of  excitement  which 
forced  them  to  rush  out  after  a  time  and  begin  the  dance, 
jumping  about  in  the  wildest  fashion.  Such  dances  cease 
only  with  the  complete  exhaustion  of  the  dancers. 

The  Patagonian  wizard1  begins  his  performance  with  drum- 
ming and  rattling,  and  keeps  it  up  till  the  real  or  pretended 
epileptic  fit  comes  on  by  a  demon  entering  him.  Among  the 
wild  Yeddas  of  Ceylon  the  devil  dancers  have  to  work  them- 
selves into  paroxysms  to  gain  the  inspiration  whereby  they 
profess  to  cure  their  patients.  With  the  furious  dancing  to 
music  and  the  chanting  of  attendants,  the  Bodo  priests  bring 
on  a  fit  of  maniacal  possession.  The  excitement  is  allowed 
to  continue  until  the  prophet  falls  to  the  ground  in  a 
swoon.  When  the  Alfurus  of  the  Celebes  invite  their  deity 
to  descend  among  them,  the  priests,  standing  about  the  chief 
priest,  upon  whom  the  deity  is  to  descend,  chant  some 
legends.  A  slight  twitching  of  the  limbs  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  possession.  The  priest  turns  his  face  towards  heaven, 
the  spirit  descends  upon  him,  and  with  terrible  gestures  he 
springs  upon  a  board  and  beats  about  with  a  bundle  of  leaves, 
and  leaps  and  dances,  chanting  some  legends.  He  falls  in  a 
swoon,  and  the  sounds  he  emits  are  interpreted  as  the  will  of 
the  spirit. 

George  Catlin2  says  dancing  is  always  accompanied  by  the 
singing  of  mysterious  songs  and  chants,  which  are  perfectly 
measured  and  sung  in  exact  time  to  the  beat  of  the  drum, 
always  with  an  invariable  set  of  sounds  and  expressions. 

The  religious  services  and  singing  among  the  Shakers  are 
often  accompanied  by  dancing,  and  more  frequently  by  beat- 
ing of  the  time  by  all  the  members  of  the  congregation.  The 
i excitement  among  them  never  rises  to  an  extreme  degree.  A 
[highly  civilized  people  is  not  easily  affected  by  mere  rhythms. 
A  simple  tone  is  not  so  expressive  as  it  is  to  the  lower 
classes  of  people.  The  negro  preacher  often  resorts  to  reci- 
tative speaking  to  produce  the  desired  emotional  state  in  his 
hearers,  which  is  generally  known  as  the  i  i  power. ' '  He  selects 
some  short  sentence,  often  unimportant,  such  as  ' '  Moses 
went  up  into  the  mountain,"  and  repeating  this,  at  first 
softly,  he  gradually  raises  his  voice  to  the  highest  pitch,  at 
the  same  time  increasing  his  gesticulations.  The  more  ex- 
citable of  his  audience  are  thrown  into  a  paroxysm  ;  the  con- 

1E.  B.  Taylor2  «  Primitive  Culture." 

2  George  Catlin,  "  Letters  and  Notes  upon  the  Manners  and  Cus- 
toms of  North  American  Indians." 


RHYTHM.  21 

tagion  spreads  so  that  sometimes  the  whole  audience  is  in- 
volved.    Evangelists  among  all  classes  of  people  rely  more  or r 
less    upon    the    emotional  effect    of    rhythmical    speaking.  > 
Street  hawkers  and  fakirs  generally  speak  with   a  recitative 
intonation.     Their  success  depends  very  largely  upon  their 
success  in  alluring  and  holding  the  attention  of  the  crowd  by 
the  manner  and  intonation  with  which  they  speak. 

The  effect  of  rhythm  and  clearly  accented  music  is  no 
greater  upon  primitive  peoples  than  upon  children.  Al- 
though children  are  not  allowed  to  go  into  ecstasies,  the 
clapping  of  the  hands  to  the  recitation  of  "Peas  porridge 
hot"  is  akin  to  the  terrible  leaping  and  gesticulations  of  the 
savage  to  the  accompanying  tom-tom  and  the  chanting  of  his 
ancient  legends.  The  child  usually  begins  his  recitation  of 
"Peas  porridge  hot"  rather  slowly,  and  as  he  continues  he 
grows  in  excitement  and  enthusiasm,  his  gestures  become 
more  violent  and  rapid,  until  he  breaks  down  in  the  excite- 
ment. It  is  a  well-known  fact  among  school  teachers  that 
young  children  become  excited  whenever  they  sing  rhymes 
with  a  strongly  accented  rhythm.  Several  have  made  this 
observation  during  the  singing  of  a  certain  line  in  Theodore 
Tilton's  "Baby  Bye."  The  line  in  which  the  excitement 
reaches  its  climax  is, 

There  he  goes 
On  his  toes 
Tickling  baby's  nose. 

This  is  a  type  of  the  fairy  measure.  The  accents  are 
strong,  and  every  line  is  preceded  by  a  pause,  and  at  the 
same  time  all  the  lines  are  rhymed.  Both  the  rhyme  and  the 
pause  lend  an  intensification  to  the  rhythm  that  is  sufficient 
to  call  out  the  greatest  excitement  in  the  fairy  people.  In 
Robert  Browning's  poem  of  the  "Pied  Piper  of  Hamlin," 
whose  charm  was  rhythm,  occurs  this  remarkably  rhythmical 
passage,  and  taken  with  the  context  might  easily  cause  some 
emotional  excitement : 

Into  the  streets  the  piper  stept, 
Smiling  at  first  a  little  smile, 
As  if  he  knew  what  magic  slept 
In  his  quiet  pipe  the  while. 

I  have  the  testimony  of  an  eminent  educator  that,  when  he 
read  these  lines,  and  he  is  an  effective  reader,  his  boy,  a 
youngster  of  five  or  six  years,  would  run  away  and  hide 
where  he  could  not  hear  the  reading.  He  was  apparently 
unable  to  bear  the  strain  of  the  excitement.  In  later  years 
the  boy  could  not  telTwTfy  he  did  so,  except  that  it  disturbed 
him. 


22  BOLTON  : 

/The  use  by  children  of  incantation  rhymes  for  purposes  of 
injury  and  torment  to  their  companions  is  interesting  in  this 
connection.  The  habit  of  rhyming  is  almost  instinctive  with 
them.  Imagine  the  effect  of  such  a  couplet  as  this  upon  the 
child  to  whom  it  is  addressed  : 

Good  night, 
Rosie  Wright. 

Again,  any  name  may  be  put  in  certain  adaptive  rhymes 
which  are  current  among  children.  These,  however,  are  not 
so  effective  as  the  instance  cited  above.  They  admit  of 
retort.  The  drawling  out  of  a  name  in  a  sing-song  measured 
tone  is  very  effective,  and  the  easy  adaptation  of  some  names 
makes  the  child  who  is  unfortunate  in  having  such  a  name  an 
object  of  torment. 

The  Place  of  Rhythm  in  Music  and  Poetry.  Music : — We 
have  seen  how  music  and  poetry  took  their  rise  together 
from  the  emotional  utterances  of  savages  during  the  dance, 
and  how  these  emotional  utterances  gradually  took  the  form 
of  recitative  speaking.  This  gave  rise  to  the  melody,  though 
it  was  not  disassociated  from  the  meaning  of  the  words. 
With  the  discovery  of  the  musical  instrument  came  the 
discovery  that  a  melody  might  be  sustained  by  simple  tone 
intensities.  Although  music  finds  its  essential  basis  in 
rhythm,  its  distinctive  feature  is  the  melody  combined  with 
harmony.  The  melody  is  constituted  of  a  succession  of  tones 
which  are  significant  of  an  emotional  state,  and  when  several 
melodies  are  combined  and  sung  together,  they  give  rise  to 
harmony.  This  combination  of  melodies  depends  upon  the 
pitch  of  the  sounds.  The  melodies  in  harmony  are  all 
subordinated  in  different  degrees  to  one  dominant  melody 
which  is  higher  in  pitch  than  the  others.  The  unifying  ele- 
ment here  is  pitch.  This  is  the  only  distinctive  use  that  is 
made  of  it  in  either  music  or  poetry.  The  most  important 
and  fundamental  unifying  principles  underlying  music  is  the 
time,  without  which  there  can  be  no  music.  Musical  tones 
must  be  exactly  timed,  if  one  is  to  get  the  conception  of  a 
melody  from  a  series  of  tones.  When  they  are  exactly  timed 
they  may  be  farther  unified  by  regular  changes  of  intensity 
which  group  the  sounds  into  measures.  The  most  common 
measures  that  occur  in  music  are  2-4,  3-4,  4-4,  and  6-8  time. 
In  what  might  be  termed  the  natural  system  of  accents,  the 
first  note  in  each  measure  receives  a  strong  accent.  This  is 
really  the  only  accent  in  2-4  time.  In  3-4  time  the  second 
note  also  receives  an  accent,  but  it  is  weaker  than  the  first. 
In  4-4  time  there  are  four  grades  of  intensity.  The  first  note 
is  the  strongest,  the  third  next,  the  second  is  weaker  still, 


EHYTHM.  23 

and  the  fourth  is  the  weakest  of  all.  In  6-8  time  the  third, 
fifth  and  sixth  are  of  about  equal  intensity,  and  weak.  The 
first  is  strongest,  the  fourth  is  next,  and  the  second  weaker 
though  stronger  than  the  third.  An  equal  amount  of  time  is 
given  to  each  measure — that  is,  the  strong  accent  occurs  at 
regular  intervals — but  the  distribution  of  this  time  among 
the  notes  in  a  measure  may  be  greatly  varied  ;  the  separate 
notes,  however,  always  bearing  constant  and  simple  relations 
to  one  another.  The  smallest  fraction  that  may  express  the 
relations  of  these  notes  is  1-64,  and  this  appears  only  in 
instrumental  music.  In  poetry,  as  we  shall  see,  there  is  not 
so  much  freedom  ;  it  has  deviated  less  from  the  primal 
rhythmic  stock  from  which  both  spring.  For  many  centuries 
music  consisted  wholly  of  melodies,  or  of  a  single  melody. 
The  idea  of  combining  or  singing  several  melodies  at  the  same 
time  came  very  much  later.  This  is  harmony.  It  reached  its 
highest  development  about  Elizabeth's  time,  when  the  at- 
tempt was  made  to  combine  as  many  as  forty  melodies.  A 
much  smaller  number  was  found  to  give  better  effect,  and  the 
number  now  used  is  generally  only  four.  Symphony  was  a 
still  later  development,  but  the  general  feeling  among  mu- 
sicians now  is  that  it  culminated  in  Beethoven,  and  its 
further  development  in  music  is  impossible.  Although  the 
term  has  had  several  significations  in  the  history  of  music, 
in  Beethoven  it  was  the  combination  of  several  themes  in 
such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  a  succession  and  combination  of 
strong  emotional  states.  The  musician  who  desires  now  to 
produce  new  effects,  turns  to  the  Volks-Lieder  for  a  theme. 
He  aims  at  variations  of  the  rhythmical  effects  and  introduces 
new  harmonies.  Mendelssohn  is  said  to  have  remarked, 
when  he  heard  some  of  the  negro  melodies  of  our  slaves,  that 
here  was  a  field  for  a  great  musical  talent.  Wagner,  taking 
the  suggestion,  has  made  such  an  adaptation  of  the  Hunga- 
rian melodies,  and  with  what  success  the  musical  world  is  well 
aware.  Wagner  has  made  a  real  advance,  and  for  some  time 
musical  composition  will  follow  his  lead.  Although 
there  is  a  feeling  among  musicians  that  rhythm  is  distasteful, 
it  is  more  apparent  than  real.  It  is  the  regular  monotonous 
recurrence  of  the  same  rhythm  without  sufficient  variations 
that  is  displeasing  and  not  the  rhythmic  flow  itself. 

Rhythms  in  Poetry : — We  have   already   seen  that  when  \ 
language  appeared   as  literature,  it  took   the  form  •  of  the  | 
simplest    possible  rhythm.      Even  then  it  was   the  vocal 
accompaniment  of  a  dance,  and  there  are  many  analogies  to  the 
simple  swaying  of  the  body  or  the  tramping  of  the  feet  in  the 
march.     There  were  no  fixed  rules  in  regard  to  the  number 
of  syllables  to  the  measure.     The  verse,  so  far  as  we  can 


24  BOLTON  : 

speak  of  a  verse,  consisted  of  an  alternation  of  accented  and 
unaccented  syllables.  Very  generally  it  began  and  ended 
with  an  accented  syllable,  so  that  a  pause  occurred  between 
each  verse.  The  line  of  development  along  which  poetry 
followed  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  unaccented  sylla- 
bles as  compared  with  the  accented,  and  also  an  increase  in, 
the  number  of  accents  to  the  verse  ;  the  verse  preserving  for 
some  time  the  same  balance  of  structure  that  it  had  in  the 
beginning.  The  number  of  accents  then  might  be  four,  six 
or  eight;  the  latter  number  never  became  popular,  for  the 
reason,  it  would  seem,  that  it  exceeded  the  normal  mental  span. 
This  even  and  balanced  structure  could  not  hold  out  forever ; 
a  demand  for  variety  and  the  influence  of  foreign  rhythms  con- 
tributed to  overthrow  it,  so  that  Chaucer  wrote  altogether  in  a 
verse  of  five  accents,  but  he  still  retained  the  middle  pause. 
This  came  after  the  second  accent  or  just  before  the  third, 
though  sometimes  after  the  third  also.  There  were  many 
verses  in  which  the  first  section  more  generally  contained 
three  accents. 

Guest  takes  no  account  of  the  measures  or  feet  in  English 
verse.  He  divides  lines  into  three  general  classes :  Those 
that  begin  with  an  accented  syllable,  those  that  begin  with 
one  unaccented  syllable,  and  those  that  begin  with  two  unac- 
cented syllables.  The  varieties  in  each  of  these  classes 
depend  upon  the  position  where  the  variation  occurs  from  the 
form  in  which  the  verse  sets  out.  vShould  the  verse  begin 
with  an  accented  syllable  and  continue  with  an  alternation  of 
accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  it  would  constitute  one 
variety.  If,  however,  two  unaccented  syllables  occur  between 
any  two  accents,  it  would  constitute  a  different  variety  accord- 
ing as  the  two  unaccented  syllables  occur  between  the  first 
and  second  accents,  the  second  and  third,  and  so  on  through 
the  verse.  Early  poetry  was  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of 
the  harp  and  hence  was  sung  in  exact  time.  On  this  account 
Guest  says  that  up  to  the  fourth  century,  English  rhythms 
were  temporal  and  then  became  accentual.  Previous  to  that 
time  the  syllable  had  a  time  value.  This,  however,  is  not  to 
be  taken  in  any  absolute  sense.  Poetry  was  chanted  in  a 
kind  of  trance  state,  and  the  reciter  aimed  to  produce  such  a 
state  in  his  audience.  For  this  purpose  the  thought  was  of 
minor  importance.  Great  dependence  was  placed  upon  the 
rhythmical  flow,  and  doubtless  a  very  exact  time  was  given  to 
the  syllables  that  the  movement  might  be  clearer.  A  rhythm 
which  depends  wholly  upon  either  the  time  element  or  the 
accent,  is  certainly  less  forcible  than  one  which  combines  both 
factors.  It  must  be  conceded  that  though  some  regard  was 
paid  to  the  time  of  syllables,  no  such  exact  time  was  main- 


RHYTHM.  25 

tained  as  modern  musicians  keep  in  their  music.  Perfect 
time  is  the  result  of  the  application  of  scientific  methods  to 
music.  Poetry  has  never  lost  the  time  element  entirely,  for 
accents  that  occur  at  irregular  intervals  could  not  have  been  but 
very  displeasing,  and  they  are  now.  It  is  reported  of  some  of 
our  modern  poets,  and  especially  of  Tennyson,  that  they  read 
their  poems  with  the  strictest  observance,  not  only  of  the  ac- 
cents, but  of  the  time,  showing  that  they  regarded  the  time  ele- 
ment of  great  importance.  Many  readers  and  teachers  of 
English  poetry  pay  little  heed  to  the  regular  recurrence  of  the 
accent.  For  them  the  thought  is  the  chief  element  in  poetry, 
and  in  attempting  to  bring  that  out,  they  disregard  the  rhythmi- 
cal flow.  But  when  the  proper  observance  of  the  thought  does 
violence  to  the  rhythm,  the  poet  must  be  adjudged  lacking 
poetic  inspiration,  and  to  that  extent  his  poetry  is  not  true 
poetry.  It  is  to  the  great  renown  of  Chaucer,  Milton  and 
Shakespeare  that  there  is  such  a  perfect  adaptation  of  the 
rhythm  to  the  theme  in  hand,  and  any  lack  of  observance  of 
the  accents  by  the  reader  betrays  his  want  of  understanding 
of  that  which  he  reads.  The  strict  observance  of  time  in 
music  and  the  unity  of  origin  of  poetry  and  music,  which 
argues  that  time  was  once  an  essential  element  of  poetry,  show 
that  the  time  element  is  still  there,  unless  it  can  be  shown 
when  and  why  it  has  dropped  out.  Poetry  has  admitted 
fewer  variations  and  allows  a  greater  prominence  to  the 
rhythmical  flow  than  music.  It  must  be  admitted,  however, 
that  the  thought  has  taken  the  place  of  the  melody  to  a 
great  extent  as  the  unifying  element,  but  it  cannot  be  allowed 
to  take  the  place  of  other  factors.  Whenever  it  does,  just  so 
soon  the  composition  fails  of  being  in  any  sense  poetry. 

Alliteration,  which  was  very  prominent  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
was  gradually  lost.  The  influence  of  the  church  and  of  Latin 
scholarship  aided  somewhat  in  this  movement,  but  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  element  prevailed  against  all  foreign  influences 
in  the  political  and  social  affairs,  it  won  the  day  in  the 
struggle  against  the  Norman  and  Latin  languages.  Our  lan- 
guage remains  essentially  Anglo-Saxon,  and  alliteration, 
though  less  common,  is  still  a  prominent  feature  of  our 
poetry.  Originally,  alliterated  syllables  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  section  and  constituted  the  unifying  factor  of  it,  butl 
there  was  no  strict  observance  of  such  a  principle,  except  that\ 
the  alliterated  syllables  were  accented.  They  might  come 
anywhere  within  the  section.  The  use  of  alliteration  by  later 
English  poets  was  to  place  the  alliterated  syllables  away  from 
the  beginning  of  the  section  and  to  put  them  in  the  same  verse. 
The  purpose  of  alliteration  is  not  to  coordinate  two  sections 
or  two  lines,  but,  by  intensifying  certain  accents  in  the  verse, 


26  BOLTON  : 

j  to  make  a  more  perfect  subordination  of  them,  or  to  make  a> 
more  perfect  unity  of  the  line.  Final  rhyme  succeeded  allit- 
eration. The  chief  reason  seems  to  have  been  for  a  more 
emphatic  or  distinguishing  mark  of  the  rhythm  than  could  be 
obtained  through  accents  alone;  especially  when  run-on 
lines  came  to  be  used  and  the  thought  was  about  to  usurp 
everything.  When  two  successive  sentences  or  words  begin 
with  the  same  sound,  it  interferes  with  the  understanding  of 
them.  Both  the  reader  and  hearer  are  more  likely  to  con- 
found them.  For  this  reason  alliteration  must  give  way, 
except  for  purposes  of  emphasis,  when  the  thought  becomes 
of  the  first  importance.  Simple  intensities  are  not  sufficient 
as  unifying  factors  ;  they  cannot  be  properly  subordinated  to 
( give  unity  to  the  line.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  the  change 
/  from  alliteration  to  rhythm  has  come  about.  In  the  early  poet- 
ry, the  alliterated  syllables  came  at  the  beginning  of  the  verse, 
but  in  modern  poetry  the  rhymed  syllables,  which  are  their 
successors,  come  at  the  end.  We  shall  see  later  how  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  rhythmical  groups  run  into  one  another 
and  become  indistinguishable.  The  same  is  to  be  observed 
with  reference  to  the  feet.  The  accents  in  the  feet  become 
transposed.  Although  it  seems  probable  that  the  foot  in 
early  poetry  and  the  measure  in  all  music  began  with  the 
accented  sound,  the  accented  syllable  in  English  poetry  is 
more  generally  the  last,  and  in  Latin  and  Greek  poetry  it  was 
quite  as  frequently  the  last  as  the  first.  The  series  of  accented 
syllables  in  the  verse  and  of  articulate  sounds  in  the  foot  seem 
to  appear  as  a  series  of  stimuli  which  are  to  be  summated. 
The  two  sections  of  the  verse  in  old  English  were  made  to 
rhyme  with  their  last  syllables,  and  were  then  written  as  two 
verses.  Two  such  couplets  together  form  the  most  common 
stanza  in  English  poetry.  Instead  of  writing  the  members  of 
each  couplet  next  to  each  other,  they  are  made  more  fre- 
quently and  quite  generally  to  alternate. 

Esthetic  Forms : — That  which  binds  the  four  verses  into  a 
stanza  is  not  wholly  the  interelation  and  balance  of  the  two 
rhyming  couplets.  The  members  of  the  two  couplets  are  fre- 
quently made  to  begin,  the  one  with  an  accented  syllable  and 
the  other  with  an  unaccented  syllable.  Sometimes  this,  and 
sometimes  a  less  number  of  accented  syllables,  make  the 
lengths  of  the  alternate  lines  less — a  fact  that  gives  artistic 
form  to  the  verse  when  it  is  properly  printed.  It  becomes 
then  an  appeal  to  the  eye  as  an  aesthetically  beautiful  form. 
This  principle  was  seized  upon  by  our  poets  during  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  carried  to  an  extreme  as  regards  form 
alone,  which  could  not  be  sustained  by  the  thought.  The 


RHYTHM.  27 

poem  had  nothing  but  form.  The  principle  of  form  becoming 
a  unifying  factor  for  a  poem  is  perfectly  true,  and  effective 
use  is  made  of  it  in  modern  poetry.  Among  the  older  poets, 
George  Herbert  introduced  many  novelties  into  the  forms  of 
stanza.  He  relied  upon  both  rhymes  and  artistic  forms. 
Some  of  his  stanzas  take  the  form  of  a  vase,  an  hour-glass, 
a  pyramid  and  an  inverted  cone.  Although  they  read 
smoothly,  one  cannot  help  but  feel  that  his  attempt  at  aesthetic 
forms  has  destroyed  the  beauty  of  the  poems. 

The  sonnet1  is  probably  the  most  organic  of  all  poems. 
While  the  theme  is  very  essential  in  binding  the  whole 
together,  the  lines  are  coordinated  in  the  most  intricate  way 
by  rhymes.  A  rhyme-scheme  runs  through  the  whole, 
which,  when  represented  by  letters,  or  dots  of  different 
sizes,  or  lines  of  different  lengths,  forms  an  artistic  group, 
obeying  the  laws  of  principality,  subordination,  etc.  The 
number  of  accents  to  the  line  is  varied  in  some  cases  in  such 
a  way  that  it  lends  a  kind  of  subordination  of  some  lines  to 
others,  or  of  all  to  one  or  two. 

Theme : — Little  or  no  regard  is  paid  to  the  thought  in  a 
poetical  recitation  by  children  or  by  primitive  peoples.  They 
delight  in  the  emotional  effect  of  sounds  properly  measured 
and  balanced.  With  the  growth  of  literature  the  thought  has 
gradually  become  more  important  until  it  is  about  to  usurp 
everything.  The  unity  of  the  stanza  and  of  the  verse  very 
generally  depends  upon  it.  Higher  unities  of  the  stanza — 
poems — depend  entirely  upon  the  theme.  The  attempts  to 
coordinate  stanzas  by  rhyming  their  last  lines  have  not 
proved  a  great  success.  The  strength  of  the  connection  is 
often  lost.  If  the  thought  in  the  verse  or  stanza  is  allowed 
to  become  the  prevailing  element,  the  poetry  becomes 
measured  prose.  Poetry  arose  in  a  kind  of  trance  or  highly 
emotional  state,  and  for  centuries  it  was  used  to  produce 
such  states  in  others.  The  whole  structure  is  calculated  to 
produce  emotion,  and  for  that  reason  it  cannot  easily  become 
the  medium  of  expression  for  the  intellect.  There  must  be  a 
mutual  dependence  between  the  thought  and  the  form,  or 
they  result  in  mutual  destruction. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  church  and  Latin  scholarship, 
English  poetry  became,  or  at  least  the  attempt  was  made  to 
conform  it  to  certain  rules  of  Latin  prosody.  English 
critics,  misunderstanding  probably  both  English  and  Latin 
poetry,  tried  to  make  the  former  conform  to  the  rules  of  the 
latter.  And  there  are  many  persons  now  who  cannot  see 

1  The  reader  is  referred  to  Prof.  Corson's  "  Primer  of  English 
Verse  "  for  a  treatment  of  the  stanza  and  sonnet. 


28  BOLTON  : 

why  the  rules  of  Latin  prosody  are  not  universal.  A  verse 
beginning  with  an  accented  syllable  and  consisting  of  an 
alternation  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  was  trochaic 
measure,  and  the  accented  syllable  was  double  the  length  of 
the  unaccented.  If  two  unaccented  syllables  were  used  be- 
tween two  accents,  it  was  the  substitution  of  a  dactyl  for  a 
trochee.  In  this  case,  if  the  syllables  preserved  their  proper 
time  values  according  to  the  Latin  prosody,  four  time- units— 
the  dactyl — would  appear  in  the  place  of  three — the  trochee. 
This,  however,  did  not  strike  the  critics  as  forming  a  defect 
in  the  rhythm,  and  the  error  has  gone  on.  It  is  the  current 
view  among  respectable  English  authorities  to-day.  In  order 
not  to  keep  the  reader  in  suspense  about  so  disputed  and 
important  a  point,  let  me  say  what  seems  to  be  the  true  view. 
As  the  simplest  time-unit  of  Greek  poetry  was  a  short 
syllable,  and  whatever  value  in  time  was  given  to  it  in  a 
verse,  that  value  must  be  maintained  throughout,  so  the 
simplest  unit  of  English  poetry  is  the  time  between  two 
accents — the  foot  is  the  simplest  unit  in  the  verse — and  this 
must  be  constant.  The  time  is  apportioned  among  the 
syllables  that  are  present  between  the  accents,  whatever  the 
number.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  accent  the  syllable 
receiving  it  will  be  longer  relatively,  though  it  does  not  bear 
a  constant  and  simple  relation  to  the  length  of  the  unaccented 
syllables.  "  Besides  the  increase1  of  loudness  and  the 
sharper  tone  which  distinguishes  the  accented  syllable,  there 
is  also  a  tendency  to  dwell  upon  it,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
lengthen  the  quantity.  We  cannot  increase  the  loudness  or 
the  sharpness  of  the  tone  without  a  certain  degree  of  muscu- 
lar action  ;  and  to  put  muscular  action  into  motion  requires 
time." 

Another  fact  which  has  been  greatly  overlooked  in  the 
study  of  English  rhythms,  and  which  has  led  to  much  con- 
fusion and  erroneous  speculation  and  criticism  of  some  poets, 
is  the  sectional  pause,  which  allows  two  accented  syllables  to 
stand  together  in  the  verse.  It  was  very  common  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  poetry,  and  disappeared  almost  entirely  under  the 
influences  spoken  of  above.  Shakespeare  made  free  use  of  it, 
and  for  a  lack  of  this  knowledge,  critics  assert  that  he  made 
use  of  false  accents.  Csedmon  placed  it  before  words  upon 
which  he  desired  to  have  a  strong  emphasis.  It  occurs  be- 
fore names  of  the  deity.  Guest  says  it  owes  its  existence  to 
the  "  emphatic  stop,"  and  is  really  the  greatest  departure 
from  the  rules  of  accent,  which  were  observed  with  much 
care  by  the  Saxon  poets.  It  has  been  revived  by  more 

1  Guest's  "  History  of  English  Rhythm,"  p.  75. 


RHYTHM.  29 

recent  poets,  and  effective  use  is  made  of  it.  The  value  of 
this  pause  is  the  great  emphasis  it  lends  to  the  word  follow- 
ing, and  my  purpose  in  dwelling  upon  it  now  is  that  it  will 
come  up  again  prominently  in  the  experimental  study. 

Another  question  which  connects  itself  very  closely  with 
this  point  of  accent  and  pauses,  is  the  foot  or  measure 
division  of  the  line.  Guest  does  not  recognize  such  a 
division  as  the  foot.  The  line  is  an  alternation  of  accented 
and  unaccented  syllables,  and  he  does  not  mention  the  fact  of 
these  forming  groups  which  in  Greek  prosody  were  called 
feet  and  in  music  are  termed  measures.  There  seems  to  be 
no  question  that  readers  do  make  such  groups  by  placing  a 
slight  pause  either  after  or  before  the  accented  syllables. 
The  Greeks  associated  these  groups  with  a  complete  step  in 
the  march,  and  since  in  matters  of  aesthetics  it  is  a  rash  thing 
to  dispute  or  deny  the  accuracy  of  their  judgments,  we  must 
regard  the  foot  as  a  real  division  of  their  verse  and  inquire 
whether  the  lack  of  quantity  in  English  syllables  has  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  absence  of  the  foot  division.  The 
English  verse  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  syllables  in  which 
every  other  one  is  uttered  with  greater  intensity  than  the 
rest.  The  accented  syllable  requires  more  time,  and  the 
unaccented  syllable  unites  or  fuses  with  it  into  an  organic 
group.  These  groups  are  then  apparently  separated  by 
pauses.  In  French  poetry  there  are  no  accented  syllables, 
and  the  foot  division  is  not  recognized  at  all.  This  gives 
English  poetry  a  kind  of  intermediate  position  between 
Greek  and  French  poetry.  The  question  of  a  foot  division 
cannot  be  finally  answered  from  an  examination  of  our 
poetry,  except  as  has  already  been  said,  such  divisions  are 
invariably  made.  The  question  will  find  its  final  answer  in 
the  experimental  investigation. 

Another  problem  which  follows  closely  upon  this  is,  what 
is  the  inherent  nature  of  a  group  in  a  rhythmical  series,  or, 
what  is  the  relation  of  the  different  syllables  to  one  another 
in  the  poetical  foot,  and  what  determines  the  length  of  it? 

The  length  of  sentence1  in  prose  is  found  not  to  deviate 
long  from  an  average.  Long  sentences  may  prevail  in  an 
author  for  a  few  pages,  but  they  are  sure  to  be  followed  by 
short  ones  in  sufficient  number  to  balance  the  long  ones. 
There  appears  a  kind  of  rhythm  in  which  long  and  short 
sentences  succeed  one  another.  This  rhythm  is  constant  for 
the  same  author ;  his  earlier  and  later  writings  show  no 
difference  in  the  length  of  sentences.  The  writers  of  the 
more  ancient  prose  show  a  greater  average  length  of  sentence 
than  our  more  recent  writers. 

1 L.  A.  Schurmann.  University  Studies,  Nebraska  University, 
Vol.  I. 


30  BOLTON  : 

There  have  been  several  attempts  in  late  years  to  con- 
struct philosophies  of  English  verse.  Several  of  these  will 
be  taken  up  and  their  more  salient  features  presented.  The 
purpose  is  not  to  give  a  complete  review  of  the  books,  but  to 
call  attention  to  a  few  facts  which  will  supplement  the  work 
that  has  gone  before. 

The  Science  of  English  Verse  by  Sidney  Lanier: — A  simple 
auditory  impression  recurring  at  regular  intervals  of  time 
furnishes  the  essential  conditions  of  a  rhythm.  Of  the  four 
properties  of  sounds — duration,  intensity,  pitch,  and  tone- 
color — the  mind  can  and  does  form  exact  coordinations  of 
duration,  pitch,  and  tone-color ;  intensities  cannot  be  com- 
pared with  exactness.  The  regular  recurrence  of  sounds  and 
silences  constitutes  primary  rhythm,  and  a  grouping  of  these 
sounds  by  means  of  intensity,  pitch,  or  tone-color,  consti- 
tutes secondary  rhythm — the  bar  in  music  and  the  foot  in 
poetry.  For  purposes  of  verse,  syllables  correspond  to 
sounds  and  bear  relations  to  one  another  in  point  of  time, 
which  are  expressed  by  the  simple  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc. 
The  regularly  recurring  syllables  of  a  sentence,  whether  prose 
or  poetry,  constitute  a  primary  rhythm,  "  which  the 
rhythmic  sense  of  man  tends  to  mould  into  a  more  definite, 
more  strongly  marked  and  more  complex  form,  that  may  be 
called  secondary  rhythm."  "The  tendency  to  arrange  any 
primary  units  of  rhythm  into  groups,  or  secondary  units  of 
rhythm,  is  so  strong  in  ordinary  persons  that  the  imagination 
will  even  affect  such  a  grouping  when  the  sounds  themselves 
do  not  present  means  for  doing  it."  Accent  simply 
arranges  the  "  materials  already  rhythmical  through  some 
temporal  recurrence."  As  the  comprehension  of  a  series  of 
sounds  is  rendered  more  easy  by  grouping,  so  the  compre- 
hension of  a  series  of  these  groups  is  rendered  more  easy  by 
again  grouping  these  groups  into  tertiary  rhythms.  Allitera- 
tion, the  recurrence  of  emphatic  words  and  punctuation 
marks  signify  the  tertiary  group.  The  fourth  order  of  rhyth- 
mical grouping  is  the  line  which,  except  in  the  case  of  run- 
on  lines,  completes  a  logical  division  of  the  sentence.  Lines 
are  again  grouped  into  couplets  by  tone- color  coordinations. 
The  fifth  order  of  rhythmical  grouping  is  the  stanza,  and  a 
complete  poem  is  spoken  of  as  the  sixth  order. 

The  effort  of  the  author,  in  his  treatment  of  the  foot,  is  to 
make  the  rhythmical  accent  and  grouping  correspond  to  the 
logical  accent  and  meaning.  For  this  purpose  he  treats  at 
length  the  iambic  foot,  it  being  the  most  common  in  English 
poetry.  Making  use  of  musical  terms,  this  foot  is  equivalent 
to  three  eighth  notes,  and  its  typic  form  is  one  eighth  note 


RHYTHM.  31 

followed  by  a  quarter  note.  Instead  of  the  eighth  note,  the 
foot  may  contain  two  sixteenth  notes,  and  instead  of  a  quarter 
note,  there  may  be  two  eighth  notes,  or  a  dotted  eighth  and  a 
sixteenth.  The  foot  may  also  contain  three  syllables,  each 
being  equivalent  to  one  eighth  note,  or  four  syllables,  but 
the  four  must  be  read  in  the  time  of  three  eighth  notes. 
In  the  place  of  any  note,  may  be  substituted  a  rest  of  equal 
length.  An  anapaest  or  dactyl  cannot  take  the  place  of  ar 
iambic  or  trochaic  foot,  since  the  former  are  equivalent  to  f oui 
time-units  and  the  latter  to  three.  He  says  there  are  two  kinds 
of  rhythm  only — 3-rhythm  and  4-rhythm.  All  other  kinds 
resolve  themselves  into  these  two  ;  2-rhythm  is  really 
4-rhythm,  and  5 -rhythm  is  equivalent  to  a  3-rhythm  and  a 
2-rhythm  combined. 

A  Primer  of  English  Verse  by  Hiram  Carson :  —  The 
object  of  verse  to  him  is  "the  expression  of  impassioned 
and  spiritualized  thought. ' 7  It  originates  in  '  <  the  unify- 
ing activity  of  feeling  and  emotion.'7  Upon  whatever 
objects  "  feeling1  or  emotion  is  projected,  or  with  what  it  is 
incorporated — it  is  unifying. "  "  The  insulated  intellect,  in 
its  action,  tends  in  an  opposite  direction — that  is,  in  an  analytic 
direction.  When  feeling  is  embodied  in  speech,  that  speech 
is  worked  up  ....  into  unities  of  various  kinds.77  The  primal 
unity  is  the  foot,  which  is  combined  "in  a  still  higher  unity 
which  is  called  the  verse,  and  this  in  turn  is  combined  into  a 
still  higher  unity,  which  is  called  the  stanza."  "  Ehythm  is 
a  succession  and  involution  of  unities,  that  is,  unities  within 
unities.7'  It  applies  to  a  succession  of  either  feet,  verses  or 
stanzas.  Each  class  of  unities  has  its  combining  principles  ; 
that  of  the  foot  is  accent.  Melody  is  the  combining  principle 
for  the  syllables.  Alliteration  is  a  common  and  effective 
form  of  consonantal  melody.  The  combining  agencies  of  the 
stanza  are  harmony  and  rhyme.  Individual  verses  may 
be  melodious,  but  when  several  are  taken  together  they  lack 
harmony.  Ehyme  is  also  an  enforcing  agency  of  the  individ- 
ual verse,  and  the  emphasis  resulting  is  neutralized  in  pro- 
portion as  the  verses  are  separated.  Blank  verse  depends 
"upon  the  melodious  movement  of  the  individual  verses, 
pause  melody,  and  the  general  harmony  or  toning.77  Varia- 
tions of  the  theme- meter  produce  important  effects.  "The 
feelings  of  the  reader  of  English  poetry  get  to  be  set,  so  to 
speak,  to  the  pentameter  measure,  as  in  that  measure  the 

1  This  is  the  author's  great  mistake.  No  such  distinction  can  be 
drawn  between  feeling  as  unifying  and  intellect  as  analytic.  Both 
analysis  and  synthesis  are  equally  properties  of  the  intellect,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  the* feelings  can  accomplish  a  synthe- 
sis or  unify  anything. 


32  BOLTON  : 

largest  portion  of  English  poetry  is  written.7'  The  intro- 
duction of  any  other  than  the  theme-rneter  gives  an  emphasis 
to  the  thought.  The  substitution  of  a  different  foot  gives  a 
variety  "  which  is  essential  to  harmony."  The  shifting  of 
the  regular  accent  gives  a  special  enforcement,  either  logical 
or  esthetic.  "  There  should  never  be  a  non-significant 
departure  from  a  pure  monotony." 

Rationale  of  English  Verse  by  E.  A.  Poe : — Verse  originates 
with  the  human  enjoyment  of  equality.  Unpracticed  ears  ap- 
preciate simple  equalities.  Practiced  ears  appreciate  equalities 
among  equalities ;  they  are  able  to  compare  two  sets  of  equals. 
The  rudiments  of  all  verse  may  possibly  be  found  in  the  spon- 
dee. In  this,  the  mind  finds  its  first  pleasure  in  the  equality 
of  two  accented  syllables.  A  collection  of  two  spondees — two 
words  of  two  equal  syllables — forms  the  second  step  in  the 
development  of  the  verse.  A  third  step  would  be  found  in 
the  juxtaposition  of  three  words.  This,  however,  gives  the 
idea  of  a  monotone,  a  relief  from  which  is  found  in  words 
of  different  accents — iambics.  A  dactyl  might  be  employed 
as  a  further  relief  from  the  monotone.  A  sequence  of  words 
of  any  sort  would  form  a  monotone,  if  they  were  not  curtailed 
or  defined  within  certain  limits.  This  gave  rise  to  the  lines, 
the  terminations  of  which  are  again  determined  by  equalities 
in  length,  and  marked  by  equalities — likenesses  in  sound. 
Every  foot  in  the  same  verse  requires  equal  time.  A  three 
syllable  word  may  appear  as  iambic  or  trochee,  providing 
that  two  syllables  can  be  read  in  the  time  of  one.  Blending 
is  an  unwarranted  liberty.  He  states  this  general  principle  : 
The  substitution  of  a  foot,  the  sum  of  whose  syllabic  times  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  syllabic  times  of  the  foot  substituted, 
is  allowed  with  this  restriction  only,  that  the  regular  foot 
shall  continue  long  enough  or  be  sufficiently  prominent  to 
leave  no  doubt  of  the  kind  of  verse.  He  says  ' '  that  rhythm 
is  erroneous,  which  any  ordinary  reader  can,  without  design, 
read  improperly."  The  real  test  of  the  perfection  of  a  verse 
is  the  pleasurable  feeling  it  yields. 

Classical  Poetry: — Classical  Greek  poetry  was  either 
chanted  or  sung,  and  for  that  reason  was  exactly  timed. 
There  was  really  no  difference  between  a  poetical  recitation 
and  a  song.  The  simplest  elements  in  the  measure,  accord- 
ing to  which  poetry  was  sung,  was  a  time- unit  equivalent  to 
one  eighth  note.  By  combining  these  time-units  into  groups, 
they  formed  the  measure  or  foot.  A  group  of  several  feet 
constituted  the  section,  and  two  sections  entered  into  the  line, 
a  certain  number  of  which  were  united  into  strophes  or 
stanzas.  A  time  value  was  given  to  all  syllables  and  words 


RHYTHM.  33 

in  the  language  ;  they  were  either  long  or  short.  A  short 
syllable  was  equivalent  to  one  time-unit,  and  a  long  to  two. 
Various  measures  were  employed.  They  might  be  equal  to 
two,  three,  four,  five  or  six  time-units.  The  most  common 
measures  contain  three  or  four  time-units.  The  three  time- 
unit  foot  most  generally  contains  two  syllables,  one  long  and 
one  short,  or  one  short  and  one  long.  The  four  time-unit 
foot  contains  two  or  three  syllables,  generally  two  long,  or 
one  long  and  two  short,  or  two  short  and  one  long. 
When  only  one  long  syllable  occurred  in  the  foot,  it  received 
an  accent ;  when  there  were  two  in  the  foot,  the  first  received 
the  accent.  The  accented  portion  stood  as  the  thesis,  and 
the  unaccented  as  the  arsis.  In  the  same  way  the  two  sec- 
tions of  the  verse  stood  as  thesis  and  arsis.  The  thesis  came 
first.  The  middle  pause  did  not  usually  divide  the  verse 
into  two  -equal  divisions.  The  first  was  the  shorter,  the 
pause  coming  within  the  third  foot.  Except  as  showing  a 
perfect  subordination  to  a  chief  accent,  and  a  slight  anacrusis 
at  the  close,  the  verses  had  no  distinguishing  marks  ;  they 
were  not  rhymed,  and  very  rarely  alliterated. 

The  number  of  feet  in  a  verse  varied  with  different  kinds 
of  poetry,  two  being  the  smallest  and  six  the  greatest. 
The  kind  of  foot  with  which  the  measure  set  out  was 
not  always  maintained.  Any  other  foot  agreeing  with  the 
theme-foot  in  position  of  accent,  and  in  the  number  of  time- 
units,  might  be  substituted.  As  such  agreements  in  the 
kind  of  feet  were  few,  there  could  be  very  little  variety  in  the 
verse. 

Greek  poetry  was  not  allowed  to  develop  long  untram- 
meled  by  rules.  A  rigid  philosophical  system  was  imposed 
upon  it,  and  all  future  poetry  was  made  to  conform  to  this 
system.  But  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  that  Greek  poetry 
suffered  from  the  restriction.  It  prevented  novelty  for 
novelty's  sake,  but  allowed  great  freedom  where  freedom  was 
most  needed. 

There  are  several  facts  in  the  history  of  rhythm  that  are 
interesting,  both  for  the  subject  in  hand  and  for  psychology 
in  general.  Soon  after  the  idea  of  varying  the  number  of 
syllables  in  a  foot  had  become  known,  and  its  effects  appre- 
ciated, there  arose  a  kind  of  mania  for  verses  which  contained 
a  variety  of  feet.  They  were  characterized  as  "tumbling 
verses  "  from  the  peculiar  effect  they  gave  rise  to.  This  was 
a  discordant  and  unpleasurable  feeling.  There  was  really  no 
rhythm  to  them,  and  they  never  became  popular.  The  same 
took  place  in  regard  to  the  length  of  line.  Various  novelties 
were  introduced,  when  a  longer  line  than  that  of  the  earliest 
poetry  was  found  more  pleasing  and  less  abrupt.  Verses  of 


34  BOLTON  I 

six  and  seven  accents  were  tried,  and  verses  containing  two 
sections,  each  of  which  was  an  alliterated  couplet,  having 
four  or  six  accents,  appear  in  some  authors.  No  new  com- 
bining agency  was  employed,  and  probably  for  that  reason 
the  verses  exceeded  the  mental  span.  Had  the  older  poets 
grasped  the  principles  of  unifying  their  lines  by  rhyme,  or  by 
proper  subordination  of  the  sections,  they  might  have  made 
such  long  verses  a  success.  In  the  same  line  were  the 
attempts  at  aesthetic  forms,  which  have  already  been  spoken 
of. 

EXPERIMENTAL  INVESTIGATION. 

pThis  work  was  undertaken  with  several  objects  in  view. 
The  first  and  most  important  object  was  to  determine  what 
the  mind  did  with  a  series  of  simple  auditory  impressions  in 
which  there  was  absolutely  no  change  of  intensity,  pitch, 
quality  or  time-interval.  Each  separate  impression  was  to 
be  indistinguishable  from  any  or  all  the  others.  Eegular 
variations  with  respect  to  the  intensity  or  time-interval  of 
the  sounds  in  this  series,  which  will  be  called  a  rhythmic 
series,  were  then  to  be  tried  separately  and  together,  with 
the  purpose  of  determining  what  values  these  properties  of 
sound  have  in  forming  a  rhythmical  series — that  is,  a  series 
of  groups  of  impressions — out  of  a  rhythmic  series.  It  was 
seen  at  the  outset  that  it  would  be  practically  impossible  with 
the  apparatus  at  our  disposal  to  employ  pitch  variations,  and 
for  that  reason  no  attempts  were  made  with  variations  in 
pitch.  Variations  in  quality  or  tone-color  were  contemplated, 
but  the  experiment  was  not  carried  out,  first  on  account  of  a 
lack  of  time,  and  secondly  of  proper  apparatus.  The  results 
of  the  first  experiment  anticipated  much  that  was  to  be  tried 
in  the  later  experiments.  As  the  work  progressed,  new 
problems  were  suggested  for  investigation  until  the  narrow 
limits  within  which  the  work  was  begun  were  greatly  over- 
stepped. These  problems  will  be  taken  up  in  what  seems  to 
be  their  proper  order,  and  the  results  presented. 

Apparatus : — The  click  of  an  electric  telephone  when  con- 
nected in  an  induction  circuit  is  constant  in  intensity,  pitch 
and  quality,  when  breaks  occur  in  the  primary  circuit,  pro- 
viding the  primary  circuit  is  constant.  The  click  is  not  the 
same  in  intensity  when  the  primary  circuit  is  made  as  it  is 
when  the  primary  circuit  is  broken.  For  this  reason,  the 
sound  at  the  break  only  could  be  utilized.  It  is  perfectly 
constant  and  stronger  in  intensity  than  the  click  at  the  make. 
It  varies  directly  in  intensity  with  variations  in  the  strength 


RHYTHM. 


35 


of  the  current  and  changes  slightly  in  pitch  and  quality  with 
variations  of  intensity,  but  the  pitch  and  quality  are  always 
the  same  with  the  same  intensity  of  current.  A  break  at 
regular  intervals  in  the  primary  circuit,  when  the  secondary 
circuit  is  closed,  the  secondary  circuit  being  open  when  the 
primary  was  closed,  was  all  that  was  necessary  to  furnish 
the  required  series  of  auditory  impressions  with  which  the 
investigation  might  begin. 

A  chronograph  after  the  pattern  devised  by  Wundt1  and 

FIGURE  I. 


built  by  C.  Krille,  furnished  a  constant  power.  Figure  I- 
gives  a  general  view  of  the  whole  apparatus  as  it  was  used  in 
this  experimental  investigation. 

he  drum-shaft  was  slipped  off  the  drum  and  five  arms, 
two  and  one-half  inches  long  were  put  upon  it  by  passing  the 
shaft  through  a  hole  near  one  end.  Each  arm  was  provided 
with  a  set  screw,  that  the  arm  might  be  held  in  position  and 

S^1  This  apparatus  will  be  found  fully  described  in  the  second  volume 
of  Wundt's  Physiologische  Psychologic,  p.  279.  3d  ed. 


36 


BOLTON 


its  position  changed  at  will.  They  were  set  at  equal  distances 
apart  along  the  shaft,  and  their  points  separated  by  72 
degrees,  so  that  the  space  about  the  shaft  was  divided  equally 
into  five  divisions.  (See  Figure  II.)  Corresponding  to 

FIGURE  II. 


Figure  II.  shows  the  operations  of  the  keys. 

A.  Drum- shaft. 

B.  The  wooden  arm  on  the  drum- shaft. 

C.  The  dotted  line  represents  the  following  point  of  the  arm. 

D.  The  continuous  line  represents  the  leading  point. 

E.  The  dotted  line  indicates  the  position  of  the  arm  when  the 
key  is  pressed  down. 

F.  The  key  bearing  the  platinum  points,  which  project  below 
and  are  connected  by  the  wire  indicated  by  K.     The  dotted  line 
below  shows  the  position  of  the  key  when  the  platinum  points  dip 
in  the  mercury. 

H.    The  rubber  elastic  which  caused  the  key  to  react. 

I.    The  rod  upon  which  the  key  turned. 

L.    The  mercury  cup. 

M.    The  wire  connections. 

each  arm  were  two  keys  placed  in  such  a  position  on  the  top 
of  the  chronograph  that  as  the  shaft  revolved  the  ends  of  the 
arms  came  in  contact  with  the  ends  of  the  keys  and  pressed 
them  downward  about  half  an  inch  to  allow  the  arm  to  pass 
by  in  its  revolution.  The  keys,  which  were  ten  in  number, 
two  to  each  arm,  were  made  of  strips  of  wood,  six  inches 
long  and  a  half  inch  wide,  and  hinged  horizontally  upon  a 
steel  rod  two  inches  from  one  end  in  such  a  way  that  the  ends 
might  move  up  and  down.  To  the  short  ends  were  attached 
elastics,  which  caused  the  long  ends  with  which  the  arms 
came  in  contact  to  rise  up  after  they  had  been  released  by 
the  arms  on  the  drum-  shaft.  They  were  prevented  from  rising 
up  too  far  by  a  piece  of  wood  placed  above  them.  Each  arm 


RHYTHM. 


37 


bore  two  points,  the  one  about  an  inch  to  one  side  and  ten 
degrees  in  advance  of  the  other.  The  leading  point  came  in 
contact  with  one  key  and  pressed  it  down  in  advance  of  the 
other.  As  each  point  was  broad,  covering  about  twenty 
degrees  of  the  circle  described  by  the  end  of  the  arm,  the  first 
key  would  remain  down  until  after  the  other  had  been  pressed 
down.  As  both  points  upon  each  arm  were  of  the  same  width, 
the  key  first  pressed  down  would  be  released  before  the  other. 
Near  the  long  end,  each  key  carried  two  platinum  points 
which  projected  downward  below  the  key,  and  which  were 
connected  at  the  upper  ends  by  a  wire.  When  the  keys  came 
down,  the  platinum  points  dipped  into  cups  of  mercury,  which 
rested  upon  the  top  of  the  chronograph.  (  See  Figure  II.) 
These  mercury  cups  were  made  by  boring  holes  into  the  side 

FIGURE  III. 


666666666C), 

A 
L  I  Q   Q  O   Q  ?  <j 


Figure  III.  shows  the  electrical  connections. 

A.  The  strip  of  hard  rubber. 

B.  The  battery. 

C.  The  mercury  cups. 

E.    1,  2,  3,  4,  5.     The  primary  coils.     The  double  rings  abo 
represent  the  induction  coil. 

K.    The  key-board. 

The  primary  circuit  is  represented  by  light  lines  indicated  by  Y, 
and  the  secondary  circuit  by  a  heavy  line,  X. 

T.    The  telephone. 


38  BOLTON  : 

of  a  strip  of  hard  rubber,  five- eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  Holes 
were  drilled  into  the  edge  of  the  rubber  opposite  the  mercury 
cups  and  copper  wires  inserted,  which  were  connected  with 
the  battery  and  induction  coils  in  the  manner  which  is 
schematized  in  Figure  III.  Beginning  at  the  left  hand  end 
(marked  "L")  of  the  hard  rubber  strip,  the  first  pair  of 
opposite  cups  and  each  alternate  pair  along  the  strip  were 
connected  with  a  coil  of  wire  on  one  side,  and  with  the  battery 
on  the  other.  For  purposes  to  be  described  later,  were  five 
coils  of  wire  which  might  be  connected  with  these  mercury 
cups.  The  coil  and  the  battery  were  connected,  thus  completing 
the  primary  circuit.  The  other  pairs  of  opposite  cups  which 
alternated  with  these  were  all  connected  together  on  the  one 
side  with  an  induction  coil,  and  on  the  other  with  the  tele- 
phone. The  induction  coil  and  the  telephone  were  joined, 
thus  completing  the  secondary  circuit.  The  ten  keys  corre- 
sponded to  the  ten  pairs  of  mercury  cups.  When  the  first 
key  at  the  left  hand,  and  each  alternate  key  thereafter, 
was  pressed  down  by  the  arms  on  the  drum- shaft  so  that 
the  platinum  points  dipped  into  the  mercury,  it  would 
close  the  primary  circuit,  for  these  keys  joined  the  opposite 
mercury  cups  which  were  connected  with  the  battery.  When 
the  second  key  at  the  left  hand,  and  each  alternate  key  there- 
after was  pressed  down,  it  would  close  the  induction  cir- 
cuit. Key  1  at  the  left  hand  end  of  the  strip  of  hard  rubber 
matched  the  first  pair  of  opposite  cups  of  mercury  and  was 
paired  with  key  2,  which  matched  the  second  pair  of  the 
opposite  cups  of  mercury.  These  first  two  keys  were  operated 
by  the  first  arm  at  the  left  hand  end  of  the  drum- shaft.  The 
other  four  pairs  of  keys  were  operated  by  the  other  four  arms 
on  the  drum- shaft.  Let  us  consider  now  only  the  first  pair 
of  keys  and  the  first  arm  at  the  left.  As  the  shaft  revolves, 
the  point  of  the  arm  which  was  in  advance  of  the  other  was 
made  to  come  in  contact  with  the  long  end  of  key  1,  and 
pressed  it  down.  After  coming  in  contact  with  key  1, 
the  point  of  the  arm  could  move  through  an  arc  of  ten 
degrees,  keeping  the  platinum  points  in  the  mercury,  and 
thus  closing  the  primary  circuit,  before  the  second  point  of 
the  same  arm  would  come  in  contact  with  key  2.  When 
the  keys  were  'pressed  down  sufficiently  to  make  the  cir- 
cuit, the  points  of  the  arm  were  made  to  slide  by  the  ends  of 
the  keys  in  such  a  way  that  the  key  was  not  released 
until  the  arm  had  moved  through  an  arc  of  twenty  degrees. 
A  further  revolution  of  ten  degrees  by  the  arm  would  press 
key  2  down  sufficiently  to  close  the  secondary  circuit.  If, 
now,  the  arm  continues  to  revolve,  key  1  would  be  released 
and  rise  up,  breaking  the  primary  circuit,  but  key  2  would 


KHYTHM.  39 

remain  down  while  the  arm  moved  through  an  arc  of  ten 
degrees,  keeping  the  secondary  circuit  closed  for  a  time  after 
the  primary  circuit  was  broken.  This  would  give  a  sound  in 
the  telephone.  The  same  process  would  be  repeated  with 
each  of  the  five  pairs  of  keys  and  their  corresponding  arms. 
If,  now,  the  arms  were  set  at  an  equal  number  of  degrees  apart 
and  the  drum- shaft  were  made  to  revolve  at  a  uniform  rate, 
the  clicks  in  the  telephone  would  be  separated  by  equal  inter- 
vals of  time,  and  not  varying  in  intensity,  pitch  or  quality, 
these  clicks  would  form  the  required  series  of  auditory 
impressions.  If  a  change  in  intensity  is  desired,  as  it  was, 
the  five  wires  connecting  the  different  pairs  of  mercury  cups 
might  each  be  connected  with  the  five  different  coils  which 
were  referred  to  above.  These  were  set  at  different  distances 
from  the  induction  coil  (see  Figure  III.).  As  the  different 
primary  coils  were  of  the  same  size,  the  strength  of  the 
induced  current,  and  therefore  the  intensity  of  the  sound, 
would  depend  upon  the  distance  at  which  the  primary  coils 
were  placed  from  the  induction  coil.  They  were  placed  at 
just  sufficient  distance  apart  to  make  the  sounds  easily  dis- 
tinguishable from  one  another  in  a  graded  series  of  intensities. 
By  means  of  the  key-board  (marked  "K")  it  was  possible  to 
connect  all  the  five  wires  in  any  way  that  was  desired  with 
the  five  primary  coils.  The  clicks  might  all  be  of  the  same 
intensity,  all  different,  or  of  two,  three  or  four  different  inten- 
sities. Whatever  the  variation,  according  to  this  arrange- 
ment it  would  recur  every  fifth  click.  When  variations  every 
fourth  or  third  were  desired,  three  or  four  arms  were  set  upon 
the  dram- shaft  and  only  three  or  four  pairs  of  keys  operated. 
If  the  arms  were  separated  by  an  equal  number  of  degrees, 
the  series  of  clicks  would  still  be  regular.  Two  kinds  of 
arms  were  employed,  those  with  a  single  end  and  those  with 
a  double  end.  (Figure  II.  represents  the  double  ended 
arm.)  By  using  both  single  and  double  ended  arms  on  the 
shaft,  and  operating  the  five  pairs  of  keys,  it  was  possible  to 
get  an  arrangement  by  which  variations  in  intensity  might 
occur  every  sixth  or  eighth  click.  Taking  all  the  possible 
arrangements  together,  the  operator  might  introduce  a  more 
intense  click  every  two,  three,  four,  five,  six  or  eight  clicks. 
Again,  he  might  make  a  series  of  clicks  which  were  composed 
of  two,  three,  four  or  five  different  intensities  of  sound. 

By  making  the  number  of  degrees  between  the  arms  on  the 
drum- shaft  different,  a  difference  in  time-interval  between 
the  clicks  was  produced.  In  the  same  way  as  with  the  dif- 
ferent intensities,  a  longer  interval  of  time  might  be  made  to 
recur  every  two,  three,  four,  five,  six  or  eight  clicks. 


40  BOLTON  : 

The  rate  at  which  the  drum- shaft  revolved  determined  the 
rate  of  the  clicks  in  the  telephone.  This  was  controlled  by 
the  fan  regulator  upon  the  chronograph.  Faster  or  slower 
rates  were  obtained  by  using  smaller  or  larger  fans.  The 
rate  was  determined  by  counting  the  clicks  in  the  telephone 
by  a  stop-watch.  Bates  between  one  click  in  two  seconds 
and  ten  in  one  second  were  possible.  As  the  rate  was  a  very 
important  factor,  it  will  be  given  in  all  cases  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  results.  The  " time"  will  indicate  the  interval  be- 
tween two  clicks.  The  battery  used  consisted  of  36  cells  of 
the  Watson's  patent. 

A  further  method  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  setting  of 
the  arms  upon  the  drum- shaft,  which  was  done  with  a  pro- 
tractor, was  to  connect  a  time- marker  in  the  primary  circuit 
and  take  the  record  upon  a  drum  along  with  a  tunning-fork. 
It  was  found  that  setting  might  be  accurate,  but  the  drum- 
shaft  might  vary  between  one  and  two  hundredths  seconds  in 
six  seconds. 

There  is  one  particular  in  which  an  improvement  might 
have  been  made  in  the  apparatus.  It  was  this  :  When  the 
primary  circuit  was  made,  though  the  secondary  circuit  was 
open,  a  faint  sound  was  heard  in  the  telephone  with  close 
attention.  The  induction  coil  acts  as  an  electric  condenser,  and 
the  telephone  being  extremely  sensitive,  betrayed  the  presence 
of  a  weak  current.  This  might  have  been  avoided  by  making 
a  break  in  both  wires  leading  to  the  telephone,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  telephone  would  be  wholly  disconnected  from  the 
induction  coil,  when  the  primary  circuit  was  made.  During 
the  entire  experiment,  only  a  single  subject  detected  the 
presence  of  this  sound,  and  for  that  reason  it  may  be  disre- 
garded. The  telephone  was  placed  in  a  different  room  from 
the  chronograph,  where  there  was  as  little  disturbance  from 
other  noises  as  possible,  especially  from  any  noises  that  were 
in  the  least  suggestive  of  a  rhythm. 

When  the  experiment  first  began,  the  apparatus  was  set  so 
that  about  three  or  four  clicks  to  the  second  were  heard  in 
the  telephone.  The  subjects  were  not  informed  in  any  par- 
ticular in  regard  to  the  experiment.  They  were  invited  to  be 
seated  and  listen  to  the  telephone.  This  they  did,  taking 
very  generally  a  rather  critical  attitude.  They  were  then 
invited  to  say  anything  that  suggested  itself  to  them,  what- 
ever the  character.  These  statements  were  all  carefully 
recorded,  and  will  be  given  in  substance.  The  sounds  sug- 
gested most  generally  and  immediately  the  clock.  Other 
suggestions  were:  slowly  dripping  water,  galloping  horse, 
pile-driver,  etc.  After  the  subjects  had  been  seated  for  a  time, 
during  which  it  was  apparent  they  were  making  a  critical 


RHYTHM.  41 

study  of  the  nature  of  the  sounds,  the  statement  most  gener- 
ally given,  and  voluntarily,  was  that  the  sounds  were  all 
alike,  and  seemed  to  be  separated  by  the  same  interval  of 
time.  After  this  statement  the  subject  paused,  as  if  most 
that  could  be  said  had  been  said.  In  some  cases  they  asked 
for  particulars  in  regard  to  what  they  should  look  for.  Some- 
times, however,  they  went  on  to  say  that  there  was  an 
apparent  chaage  of  intensity  in  the  sounds  ;  the  clicks  seem 
to  group  themselves  by  twos  or  fours,  as  the  case  might  be ; 
generally,  however,  it  required  some  kind  of  a  suggestion  to 
direct  the  attention  of  the  .subject  to  the  grouping  of  the 
sounds.  An  indirect  method  was  preferred  to  a  direct  one. 
In  cases  where  the  subject  had  spoken  of  the  clicks  seeming 
like  the  clock  ticks,  they  were  asked  if  there  was  the  same 
difference  of  intensity  or  quality  in  the  sounds  as  was 
apparent  in  the  clock  ticks.  This  suggestion  was  sufficient 
in  many  cases.  The  subject  directed  his  attention  then  to 
the  matter,  and  if  there  was  any  tendency  to  make  groups  of 
the  clicks,  it  was  apparent  in  a  few  moments.  Sometimes  it 
was  remarked  that  they  had  noticed  such  a  grouping,  but 
had  regarded  it  as  a  freak  of  their  imagination,  and  did  not 
think  it  worth  mentioning.  Another  method  of  directing  the 
attention  of  the  subject  to  the  grouping  was  to  make  a  refer- 
ence to  the  fact  that  they  had  said  the  sounds  were  all  alike, 
and  then  to  ask  why  they  had  said  sounds  and  not  sound  ; 
did  they  suppose  there  was  more  than  one  sound  ?  In  this 
case  also,  they  replied  frequently  that  they  imagined  that 
there  was  more  than  one  sound,  but  did  not  think  it  worth 
while  to  mention  the  fact.  In  some  cases  it  was  sufficient  to 
ask  the  subjects  to  count  the  clicks  as  they  heard  them,  and 
then  to  ask  how  they  counted.  The  reply  was  that  they 
counted  four  or  two,  as  the  case  might  be,  and  then  began 
again.  Again  it  was  noticed  that  the  subject  was  uncon- 
sciously keeping  time,  with  the  foot  tapping  to  every  fourth 
or  every  second  click.  Such  a  subject  was  asked  why  he 
tapped  every  fourth  or  second  click,  and  so  his  attention  was 
directed  to  a  grouping  that  was  going  on  unconsciously. 
Such  indirect  methods  were  usually  successful,  but  there  were 
several  cases  in  which  indirect  suggestions  of  this  sort  failed 
of  their  purpose.  Direct  methods  of  tapping  a  rhythm  with 
the  fingers  or  counting  did  not  suggest  anything  beyond  the 
clock  tick  to  two  subjects.  These  persons  possessed  no 
appreciation  of  music  at  all ;  they  could  not  ' '  carry  a  tune,  > 7 
and  yet  were  able  to  recognize  some  of  the  common  airs  when 
they  were  sung  or  whistled.  The  general  statement  of  the 
remarks  and  answers  of  each  subject  will  be  given  as  fully  as 
it  seems  necessary.  They  will  be  abridged  as  far  as  possible, 


42  BOLTON  : 

but  the  special  features  in  the  answers  of  each  subject  will  be 
mentioned.  The  treatment  of  special  phases  of  these  results 
will  follow,  and  then  will  be  taken  up  the  result  of  special 
investigations  that  were  suggested  during  the  first  part  of  the 
experiment. 

Subject  1.     Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .23  sec.  The  first  suggestion  was  a  4-group.  Subject 
could  suggest  groups  of  two,  three,  five  and  six,  but  when  he  made 
no  suggestion  either  by  tapping  or  counting,  he  returned  to  a 
4-group.  The  third  in  each  4-group  was  accented,1  but  it  was  pos- 
sible in  the  later  experiments  to  accent  any  member  of  the  group. 
In  general  the  first  in  all  forms  of  grouping  was  accented.  The 
3-group  was  unpleasant  and  the  5-group  was  very  difficult  to  main- 
tain. Time,  1.14  sec.  The  most  natural  form  of  grouping  was  by 
two.  It  was  possible  to  get  a  4-group,  but  when  the  subject  made 
no  suggestion  of  any  other  group,  he  returned  to  the  2-group. 
Time,  .167  sec.  The  6-group  was  most  easily  suggested.  It  had  the 
appearance  of  being  composed  of  two  3-groups.  The  subject  showed 
a  tendency  with  this  rate  to  group  the  3  and  4- groups  into  higher 
groups.  Eight-groups  of  threes  and  4- groups  of  fours  succeeded  very 
well.  It  was  not  so  easy  or  natural  to  make  higher  groups  of  fours. 
Time,  1.  sec.  This  rate  produced  a  drowsy  feeling.  The  subject 
was  inclined  to  make  each  click  stand  as  the  accented  click  in  a 
3-group,  supplying  the  unaccented  sounds  between  the  accented  in 
imagination.  When  the  subject  was  tired  he  noticed  a  tendency  to 
change  the  grouping  frequently  from  two  to  three,  and  vice  versa. 
The  subject  showed  a  strong  tendency  towards  4-grouping  in  pref- 
erence to  all  other  forms  of  grouping,  and  yet  during  one  experi- 
ment, when  the  time  was  .208  sec.,  he  found  a  3-group  more  pleas- 
ant than  either  a  2-group  or  a  4-group.  The  rate  was  too  fast  for 
easy  grouping  by  two.  When  he  counted  objects  he  counted  them 
by  fours.  Time,  .323  sec.  The  subject  was  disposed  to  make  a 
4-group,  and,  even  when  every  third  sound  was  made  more  intense 
than  the  others,  he  persisted  in  saying  that  he  grouped  them  by 
fours,  but  that  there  was  probably  a  longer  interval  in  the  series 
which  disturbed  the  smoothness  of  his  4-groups.  When  his  atten- 
tion was  called  later  to  the  accented  clicks,  he  made  no  further 
mistakes  of  longer  intervals  for  accented  sounds. 

Subject  2.  Some  musical  talent  and  training.  Accustomed  to 
introspective  work. 

Time,  .323  sec.  The  subject  grouped  by  twos,  visualizing  the 
pendulum.2  He  could  suggest  groups  of  three  and  four  easily,  the 
four  being  more  difficult  than  the  three.  Time,  .263  sec.  He 
grouped  the  clicks  by  four,  but  the  4-groups  were  divided  into  two 
2-groups.  Time,  .208  sec.  This  rate  yielded  easily  and  naturally  to 
a  double  3- grouping.  When  he  first  listened  to  the  telephone  after 

JThis  accent  consisted  of  an  apparent  increase  in  intensity  with  a  change  in  pitch  and 
quality. 

2  Almost  every  subject  either  visualized  the  pendulum  or  spoke  of  the  pendulum-swing 
movement  sometime  during  the  experiments.  In  either  case  it  was  a  form  of  grouping. 
When  the  rates  were  slow,  the  subject  visualized  the  clock  pendulum  and  made  one 
click  come  near  the  completion  of  each  half  swing.  The  clicks  were  then  grouped  by 
two  and  were  called  the  clock  tick.  In  my  own  case  and  in  some  others  there  was  a 
strong  tendency  to  sway  the  body  with  the  pendulum.  This  was  called  the  pendulum- 
swing  movement  by  the  different  subjects.  It  was  quite  visible  at  times.  By  this  pen- 
dulum-swing movement  groups  of  two,  three,  four,  six  or  eight  were  frequently  grouped 
Into  2-groups.  The  first  group,  then,  in  the  2-group  was  accented  or  more  emphatic  than 
the  other,  and  a  distinct  pause  seemed  to  follow  the  second  group. 


RHYTHM.  43 

either  a  change  of  rate  or  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  experiment, 
the  clicks  did  not  group  themselves,  but  in  a  short  time  the  tendency 
to  group  increased  until  it  required  the  greatest  efforts  to  hear  the 
clicks  as  a  uniform  series.  The  subject  was  able  to  hear  the 
clicks  as  a  uniform  series,  only  by  imagining  some  one  pound- 
ing in  the  distance.  It  required  a  mental  picture  of  some  object- 
ive thing  that  was  perfectly  uniform.  When  he  gave  himself  up  and 
listened  to  the  series  as  a  whole,  he  fell  into  some  kind  of  grouping, 
which  might  or  might  not  continue  for  any  length  of  time.  He  had 
a  strong  tendency  to  shift  from  one  grouping  to  another.  He  com- 
pared it  to  the  optical  illusion  of  the  "stairs."  The  double  2-group  is 
confounded  sometimes  with  the  double  3-group.  Time,  .187  sec. 
The  subject  said  he  got  a  compound  2  and  3-group,  which  by  actual 
count  of  the  accents  to  which  he  tapped  with  the  fingers,  showed 
he  was  making  a  double  4 -group.1  This  subject  was  strongly  dis- 
posed to  double  groups  of  all  sorts.  Time,  .323  sec.  At  this  rate  the 
2-group  was  most  naturally  accompanied  by  the  mental  image  of 
the  clock.  Time,  .263  sec.  This  yielded  most  easily  to  a  4-group, 
which  took  the  form  of  two  groups  of  twos.  Time,  .167  sec.  This 
rate  yielded  at  first  to  a  6-grouping,  which  was  divided  into  two 
groups  of  threes,  but  it  did  not  persist  there;  he  returned  to  a  double 
2-group. 

The  pulse  seemed  at  times  to  impose  a  grouping  in  which  the 
clicks  coming  nearest  in  time  to  the  heart-beat  was  accented. 
When  the  subject  gave  his  attention  to  breathing,  it  more  generally 
conformed  itself  to  some  grouping  that  was  already  going  on. 
Inhalation  lasted  during  a  4-group  and  exhalation  during  a  3-group. 

Subject  3.     Considerable  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .5  sec.  The  subject's  first  suggestion  was  of  a  2-group,  but 
he  immediately  decided  that  a  4-group  was  more  natural.  He  was 
able  to  count  almost  any  rhythm  at  this  rate  as  far  as  twelve,  and 
the  clicks  seem  to  group  themselves  with  the  count.  At  first  the 
groups  were  apparently  separated  by  a  longer  interval,  which  the 
subject  believed  in  the  first  place  to  be  real.  He  was  disposed  to 
regard  the  4-group  as  the  most  satisfactory.  Any  grouping  was 
plainer  when  he  counted.  Diaphragmatic  movements  also  accompany 
the  grouping.  With  indifferent  attention  there  was  no  grouping. 
The  4-group  usually  contained  two  accented  clicks,  either  the  first 
and  the  third  or  the  second  and  the  fourth.  The  former  were  pre- 
ferred. This  rate  was  found  to  be  most  pleasing.  It  was  animating. 
The  5-group  was  difficult  to  get.  A  slight  pause  occurred  between 
the  groups  in  every  form  of  grouping.  In  the  presence  of  the 
chronograph,  which  gave  a  6-rhythm  which  was  composed  of  two 
3-groups,  the  subject  still  grouped  by  four  for  a  time,  but  this 
tendency  was  finally  overcome  and  the  series  yielded  to  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  chronograph. 

When  every  fourth  was  accented,  the  subject  being  unaware  of 
this  accent,  said  that  the  4-group  only  was  possible,  for  there 
appeared  to  be  a  longer  interval  between  every  four  clicks  which 
made  any  other  grouping  impossible.  When  the  accent  was 
strengthened,  he  said  the  interval  had  been  lengthened.  This  long 
interval  might  come  anywhere  within  the  group  of  four,  but  it  more 
generally  came  between  the  groups.  When  two  stronger  clicks 
followed  by  two  weaker  ones  formed  the  series,  the  subject  said  the 

1  Jt  is  not  unfrequent  for  a  subject  to  mistake  the  actual  grouping  which  he  is  making. 
Sometimes  a  subject  is  so  disposed  to  a  particular  number  that  he  persists  in  saying 
that  he  gets  groups  of  that  number,  when  it  is  perfectly  evident  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  clicks  according  to  the  circumstances  is  grouped  with  the  accented  clicks  to  which 
he  taps. 


44  BOLTON  : 

rate  was  slower.  He  grouped  the  series  by  fours,  but  it  appeared 
as  though  two  long  sounds  followed  by  two  short  ones  formed  the 
group.  When  three  strong  sounds  and  one  weak  one  formed  the 
series,  he  still  grouped  by  four.  The  first  two  in  each  group  seemed 
to  be  of  the  same  length,  the  third  was  longer  and  the  fourth  very 
short.  During  all  the  experiments  the  subject  confounded  stronger 
clicks  with  long  intervals,  and  was  never  able  to  tell  the  difference 
between  a  strong  sound  and  a  long  interval.  He  was  surprised 
when  told  afterwards  that  the  longer  interval  had  been  caused  by 
accenting  one  sound.  Time,  2.304  sec.  The  subject  visualized  the 
pendulum,  but  said  the  pendulum  seemed  to  reach  its  full  swing 
before  the  click  corresponding  to  the  swing  was  heard.  The  clicks 
seemed  to  delay  too  long.  Time,  .323  sec.  Every  third  sound  was 
accented.  The  subject  had  a  strong  mental  habit  for  grouping  by 
fours  and  was  greatly  puzzled  by  this  accent  on  every  third,  which 
he  said  was  a  longer  interval  and  broke  up  his  tendency  to  form 
groups  of  fours.  Time,  .208  sec.  Every  third  was  accented.  The 
subject  forms  6-groups,  which  were  accented  upon  the  first  and 
fourth  and  a  long  interval  appeared  between  the  groups  of  six. 
Time,  .137  sec.  When  the  series  was  composed  of  clicks  of  three 
different  intensities  repeating  themselves  in  the  same  order,  the 
3-groups  were  again  grouped  by  four  generally,  though  the  subject 
could  suggest  groups  of  three  3-groups. 

Subject  4.     Some  musical  talent. 

Time,  .288  sec.  The  clicks  suggested  the  clock-tick.  The  subject 
could  group  them  by  twos,  but  he  found  it  more  natural  to  group  by 
fours.  It  has  long  been  a  mental  habit  with  him  to  make  groups  of 
four  of  any  objects  or  impressions  that  would  admit  of  any  kind  of 
grouping.  He  counts  by  four  and  groups  the  puffs  of  a  locomotive 
by  four.  Four  objects  or  impressions  of  any  sort  standing  together 
have  always  arrested  his  attention.  He  found  it  possible  to  group 
these  clicks  by  two,  three  or  five  when  he  made  a  suggestion  either 
by  counting  or  tapping  with  the  fingers,  but  when  the  suggestion 
was  stopped  he  returned  to  a  4- group.  In  every  kind  of  grouping 
the  first  sound  was  always  accented.  Time,  .115  sec.  The  subject 
said  the  grouping  was  by  four  and  was  requested  to  tap  the 
accented  click  in  every  group.  In  six  trials  for  five  seconds  each, 
he  tapped  just  five  times  during  each  trial,  showing  he  made  a  group 
of  four  in  one  second.  The  actual  number  of  clicks  to  the  second 
being  8.6,  it  was  apparent  that  he  was  making  a  much  larger  group 
than  four,  probably  an  8-group.  When  asked  to  make  a  3-group 
and  tap  the  accented  click  in  each  group,  the  results  were  nineteen 
taps  in  fifteen  seconds,  showing  that  his  groups  were  not  far  from 
six  instead  of  three  clicks  to  the  group.1 

The  3-group  was  really  a  4-grpup  in  many  cases.  Between  each 
group  of  three  occurred  one  click,  of  which  no  account  was  taken. 
It  seemed  to  him  something  like  this  when  he  counted  :  1,  2,  3,  1 — 
1,  2,  3,  1-1,  2,  3,  1. 

When  the  subject  gave  attention  to  the  pulse,  the  number  of 
clicks  coming  between  the  beats  of  the  heart  formed  a  group.  The 
click  which  came  nearest  in  time  to  the  heart-beat  seemed  always 
to  correspond  to  it.  The  breathing  adjusts  itself  to  the  4-rhythm. 
Inhalation  lasts  during  one  group  of  four,  and  exhalation  during 
another.  In  this  way  the  4-grpups  were  grouped  by  two.  Time, 
.156  sec.  By  forming  a  mental  image  of  the  pendulum,  or  of  some 
object  moving  up  and  down,  he  was  able  to  make  double  4-groups, 

*It  is  probable  that  the  primary  grouping:  was  two,  and  these  groups  of  two  were  then 
united  into  larger  groups  of  three  and  four. 


RHYTHM.  45 

which  corresponded  to  the  full  swing  of  the  pendulum.  These 
three  rates  were  given  in  rapid  succession.  Time,  .536  sec.  The 
4- group  was  very  clear.  Time,  .268  sec.  The  4 -group  was  un- 

Eleasant  at  first,  but  he  gradually  became  accustomed  to  it.  At 
rst  the  rates  seemed  too  fast.  Time,  .536  sec.  With  this  latter  rate 
the  4-group  seemed  to  divide  into  two  groups  of  two  during  the 
second  trial.  Time  1.072  sec.  The  2-group  seemed  most  natural 
and  the  subject  felt  a  strong  tendency  to  form  higher  groups  of 
twos.  After  the  subject  became  accustomed  to  this  rate,  he  was 
more  inclined  to  form  4-groups  than  2-groups,  but  still  the  third 
and  fourth  clicks  seemed  at  times  more  like  a  2-group  than  a  part 
of  a  4-group.  The  general  effect  of  this  last  rate  was  soothing. 
Time,  1.66  sec.  This  rate  was  soporific  ;  it  was  possible  to  form  a 
2-group,  but  he  did  not  do  so  spontaneously.  Time,  .323  sec.  The 
subject  grouped  the  clicks  by  four  and  found  difficulty  in  suggest 
ing  a  3-group.  When  every  third  was  accented,  he  persisted  in 
grouping  by  four.  Again  he  was  asked  to  suggest  a  3-grouping, 
and  he  succeeded  in  doing  so.  The  subject  was  unaware  of  the 
accent,  and  expressed  surprise  that  he  could  group  by  three,  and 
found  it  easier  than  grouping  by  four.  The  following  rates  were 
given  in  rapid  succession.  Time,  .268  sec.  The  4-group  was  very 
clear  and  pleasant.  Time,  .17  sec.  The  subject  grouped  by  fours, 
but  felt  a  confused  irritating  feeling.  There  was  something  added 
onto  each  group  of  four.  Time,  .134  sec.  This  rate  recalled  the 
sound  of  a  locomotive.  He  visualized  a  revolving  wheel,  during 
each  revolution  of  which  he  counted  four.  Time,  .116  sec.  He 
still  groups  by  four,  but  the  4-groups  are  grouped  by  two,  a  strong 
and  weak  group  together.  When  every  eighth  was  accented,  he 
grouped  by  eight.  There  was  a  distinct  pause  along  with  the 
accented  sound.  Time,  .134  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The 
8-group  divided  into  two  4-groups,  with  a  pause  after  the  second 
group.  The  4-groups  were  grouped  by  two  with  the  pendulum 
swing.  Time,  .268  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  subject 
grouped  by  four  and  associated  the  pendulum  swing  with  the 
groups  of  four. 

Subject  5.     Some  musical  talent. 

Time,  .288  sec.  The  subject  was  most  naturally  disposed  to  a 
4-group,  and  found  it  difficult  to  get  any  other.  Time,  .78  sec.  The 
2-group  was  most  natural  with  this  rate.  The  3-group  was  pleasant 
and  easy  when  it  was  suggested.  Time,  1.44  sec.  It  was  easy  to 
form  2-groups,  but  other  groups  were  impossible.  These  three 
rates  were  given  in  rapid  succession.  Time,  .353  sec.  The  4-group 
was  most  natural.  Time,  .183  sec.  The  8-group  was  most  agree- 
able with  this  rate.  Time,  .156  sec.  The  subject  found  the  8-group 
most  natural. 

Time,  .3  sec.  When  every  fifth  was  accented,  the  subject  made 
groups  of  four,  accenting  the  four,  and  said  that  there  was  a  rest 
between  each  group.  He  found  it  quite  as  easy  also  to  accent  the 
first.  When  his  attention  was  called  to  this  pause  between  the 
groups,  he  decided  that  the  groups  contained  five  clicks,  in  which 
the  fourth  was  accented.  When  the  first  and  third  clicks  were 
made  more  intense,  the  subject  was  greatly  puzzled  for  a  time,  but 
decided  that  the  series  was  compounded  of  a  2-group  and  a  3-group. 

Time,  .969  sec.  He  was  able  to  form  3  and  4-groups.  The  series 
was  associated  strongly  with  the  clock,  and  for  that  reason  the 
4-group  tended  strongly  to  divide  into  two  2-groups.  Time,  .323 
sec.  He  found  the  4-group  most  natural  and  pleasant,  and  when 


46  BOLTON  : 

he  attempted  to  form  groups  of  three,  they  would  immediately  run 
into  fours.  Time,  .208  sec.  The  subject  formed  a  long  group  of  the 
clicks  which  he  thought  was  an  8 -group.  The  rate  was  too  fast  for 
easy  grouping  by  four,  and  his  attention  seemed  to  waver  between 
a  4-group  and  a  longer  one  which  he  thought  was  an  eight. 

Subject  6.     Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .3  sec.  When  the  subject  first  listened  to  the  telephone  he 
found  no  tendency  to  form  groups  of  these  clicks.  Even  after 
repeated  suggestions  the  subject  did  not  comprehend  what  was 
desired  or  to  be  looked  for.  He  was  asked  to  tap  an  accompani- 
ment to  the  sounds  with  four  fingers.  After  a  time  he  found 
himself  accenting  the  third,  and  grouping  the  sounds  by  four. 
When  he  tried  the  suggestion  with  three  fingers  it  did  not  succeed 
very  well.  When  two  were  tried,  the  subject  decided  that  the 
4-group  was  a  combination  of  two  2-groups.  In  the  same  way  he 
was  able  to  group  the  sounds  by  six,  but  the  groups  divided  easily 
into  two  3- groups.  On  the  whole  the  2- group  was  the  most 
natural  with  this  rate.  Time,  .156  sec.  The  4-group  prevailed  and 
easily  combined  into  8-groups.  Time,  .78  sec.  The  2-group  was 
most  natural,  but  the  subject  was  able  to  suggest  the  3-group  easily. 
Time,  1.44  sec.  'Even  a  2-group  was  difficult  to  get.  The  time 
seemed  to  be  too  long.  Time,  .353  sec.  Groups  of  two,  three  and 
four  were  all  possible.  The  first  click  in  all  groups  was  accented, 
and  the  third  also  in  the  4-groups.  When  he  suggested  a  6-group,  it 
divided  easily  into  two  3-groups  or  three  2-groups.  The  8-group  di- 
vided readily  into  two  4-groups.  It  was  difficult  to  get  a  5-group.  The 
5 -group  tended  to  run  into  a  6-group,  which  then  divided  easily  into 
two  3-groups.  Time,  .288  sec.  The  4-group  was  most  natural,  and 
readily  combined  into  double  4-groups.  Time,  .156  sec.  The  6-group 
was  most  natural.  When  the  telephone  was  disconnected  and  the 
chronograph  continued  to  run,  the  grouping  always  began  with  the 
first  click  in  a  new  group.  Time,  .78  sec.  The  2-group  was  the 
most  natural.  Time,  1.66  sec.  There  was  no  spontaneous  grouping 
with  this  rate.  It  was  too  slow.  The  subject,  found  it  convenient 
to  regard  the  click  as  an  accented  click  in  a  4-group,  supplying  the 
three  intermediate  sounds  in  imagination.  Time,  .323  sec.  At  this 
rate,  the  subject  showed  strong  tendency  to  muscular  movements, 
either  to  tap  with  the  finger  or  toe  upon  the  accented  click,  some- 
times to  nod  the  head  or  sway  the  body.  He  found  this  rate  very 
favorable  for  voluntary  changes  of  the  grouping,  which  he  did 
either  by  counting  or  tapping  with  the  fingers.  The  general 
emotional  effect  was  depressing. 

The  pendulum-swing  movement  or  2-rhythm  was  an  important 
factor  in  all  his  groups.  The  6-group  was  usually  composed  of  two 
3-groups,  and  the  8-group  of  two  4-groups.  Time,  .167  sec.  The 
4-group  was  very  clear  and  pleasant,  and  the  subject  tended  to 
group  them  by  the  motions  of  the  pendulum.  When  every  third 
click  was  strengthened,  the  subject  grouped  by  threes,  and  made 
the  3-groups  follow  the  motions  of  the  pendulum.  In  this  way  the 
series  produced  an  exciting  effect.  Time,  .134  sec.  The  4-group 
was  plain  and  distinctly  grouped  by  twos  by  the  pendulum-swing. 
This  rate  was  also  exciting  and  animating.  When  every  sixth  click 
was  accented,  the  grouping  lost  its  exciting  effect.  When  the 
series  was  composed  of  clicks  of  three  intensities,  the  strongest 
first,  the  clicks  were  grouped  primarily  by  threes  and  these 
3-groups  were  again  grouped  into  4-groups.  When  the  time  was 
changed  to  .167  sec.,  and  three  grades  of  intensity  retained,  the 
higher  grouping  of  3-groups  by  four  ceased.  Time,  .137  sec.  When 


EHYTHM.  47 

every  sixth  click  was  accented,  the  series  was  grouped  by  six,  and 
the  six  groups  were  again  grouped  by  the  motions  of  the  pendulum. 
Time,  .167  sec.  Every  sixth  was  accented.  The  grouping  was  still  by 
six,  but  the  6-groups  did  not  group  by  two.  With  the  slower  rate 
the  6-groups  did  not  seem  so  compact  as  with  the  faster  rate. 
Time,  .208  sec.  Every  sixth  was  accented.  The  6-group  was  diffi- 
cult to  grasp.  The  time  was  too  long  and  the  group  tended  to 
divide  into  two  3-groups.  Time,  .263  sec.  Every  sixth  was 
accented.  There  was  greater  difficulty  still  in  grasping  the  6-group, 
on  account  of  the  tendency  to  divide  the  group  into  two  3- groups. 
Time,  .323  sec.  Every  sixth  was  accented.  The  subject  now 
grouped  the  series  by  four  in  spite  of  the  accent  upon  every  sixth. 
When  the  subject  heard  the  sound  of  the  chronograph,  which  was 
rhythmical,  he  grouped  the  clicks  according  to  this  rhythm,  which 
in  this  case  was  a  double  3-rhythmical.  Time,  .3  sec.  Every  fifth  sound 
was  accented.  The  subject  grouped  by  fours,  but  the  accent  came 
in  a  different  place  in  each  group.  It  shifted  one  place  further  to 
the  right.  When  a  6-group  was  suggested  to  the  subject,  the 
accent  changed  its  position  in  the  opposite  way.  It  shifted  its 
position  one  place  to  the  left  in  each  group. 

Subject  7.    Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .3  sec.  Almost  immediately  the  series  divided  into  groups 
of  four,  and  soon  after  the  4-groups  were  grouped  by  two.  With 
the  suggestion  of  tapping,  the  subject  was  able  to  group  by  two, 
three  or  five.  Time,  .78  sec.  The  2 -group  could  be  suggested 
only  with  difficulty.  The  3  and  4-groups  were  not  at  all  pleasant. 
Time,  .156  sec.  There  was  no  distinct  grouping.  The  series  seemed 
to  rise  and  fall  in  intensity  at  regular  intervals.  At  times  he  had  a 
"dreadful"  feeling  that  the  chronograph  was  slowing  up  and  about  to 
stop.  The  subject  had  observed  this  grouping  of  sounds  in  the  puffing 
of  a  locomotive.  He  had  not  noticed  a  definite  number  in  the  group. 
The  sounds  simply  rise  and  fall  in  intensity.  Speaking  of  the 
8-group,  the  subject  said  he  had  a  feeling  of  not  being  able  to 
"  round  up  "  until  he  came  to  eight.  It  seemed  natural  to  stop  at 
eight,  and  start  over  again.  This  group  was  accompanied  by  a 
feeling  of  completeness.  During  inhalation,  the  clicks  seemed  to 
come  faster,  and  slower  during  exhalation.  In  all  forms  of  group- 
ing the  subject  felt  a  muscular  sensation  in  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines. He  also  felt  a  strong  tendency  to  beat  time  with  the  thumb. 
He  had  been  taught  to  do  so  when  quite  young. 

Four- grouping  is  a  kind  of  mental  habit  with  him.  When  the 
series  was  accented  upon  every  fifth,  he  still  grouped  by  four, 
making  a  pause  between  each  group  in  which  he  pronounced  the 
word  "and:"  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  1,  2,  3,  4.  In  the  same 
way  the  3-group  appeared  as  1,  2,  3,  1,— 1,  2,  3,  1,— 1,  2,  3,  1.  In  the 
4- group  the  first  and  third  were  always  accented.  In  other  groups 
the  first  was  accented.  When  the  rate  was  .72  sec.  or  .156  sec.  the 
grouping  did  not  come  without  suggestion  by  muscular  movement 
or  counting ;  with  intermediate  rates  the  grouping  by  four  was 
wholly  involuntary. 

The  subject  could  group  4-groups  by  two  very  easily,  but  it 
required  an  effort  to  group  them  by  four,  or  8 -groups  by  two.  The 
8-group  was  generally  composed  of  a  more  and  a  less  emphatic  group 
of  four. 

Time,  .268  sec.  A  double  4-group  was  the  most  natural  and  easy. 
One  group  was  more  emphatic  than  the  other.  Time,  .263  sec. 
Though  the  time  was  only  slightly  changed,  the  subject  thought  the 
previous  double  4-group  changed  into  a  more  perfect  8-group. 


48  BOLTON  : 

There  was  not  such  a  strong  division  into  two  4-groups.  Time,  .208 
sec.  This  rate  gave  a  "  better  8-group  "  than  the  previous  one. 
Time,  .167  sec.  The  groups  did  not  separate  distinctly.  There  was 
a  kind  of  confused  feeling  about  the  clicks.  Time,  .137  sec.  The 
confused  feeling  with  the  previous  rate  was  more  apparent  still. 
When  every  sixth  was  accented,  he  grouped  by  six  and  the 
6-groups  were  grouped  by  two  with  the  pendulum- swing  movement. 

Subject  8. 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  subject  took  a  critical  attitude.  He  had  no 
preference  for  any  grouping.  He  could  count  any  number  as  far  as 
ten,  and  the  series  seemed  to  group  itself  according  to  the  count. 
In  the  longer  groups,  groups  of  two  were  frequent.  Time,  .156  sec. 
The  8-group  was  the  most  suitable.  It  was  composed  of  two 
4-groups,  and  each  4-group  of  two  2-groups.  Time,  1.44  sec.  It  was 
not  possible  to  form  any  grouping.  The  rate  was  too  slow.  The 
subject  has  noticed  rhythms  in  the  sounds  of  a  mill-wheel,  locomo- 
tives and  fans.  He  was  not  aware  of  any  definite  grouping  of  the 
sounds. 

Subject  9.  Considerable  musical  talent.  Long  and  careful  training 
in  music.  Accustomed  to  introspective  study. 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  subject  adopted  a  critical  attitude  and  gave  his 
attention  to  the  nature  of  the  sounds.  At  first  he  was  inclined  to 
believe  that  they  were  all  alike  in  intensity,  but  then  he  thought 
every  third  was  stronger  than  the  rest.  For  a  time  the  interval 
between  the  clicks  seemed  to  be  irregular,  but  he  soon  discovered 
that  this  irregular  interval  might  occur  anywhere  he  chose  to  put 
it.  In  a  short  time  his  tendency  to  find  groupings  of  the  clicks 
grew  so  strong  that  it  required  an  effort  to  hear  the  series  uniform. 
Such  an  effort  was  akin  to  the  feeling  of  "looking  long  into  the 
future."  The  grouping  tendency  had  to  be  restrained.  Time,  .3 
sec.  The  4-group  was  so  plain  that  he  did  not  discover  the  fact 
that  it  was  imaginary  and  was  completely  surprised  that  the  illusion 
was  so  complete.  It  was  then  more  than  ever  an  effort  to  hear  a 
uniform  series  of  single  impressions.  He  said,  £'I  find  no  rhythm  as 
long  as  I  hold  my  breath  and  stick  to  it."  "I  get  hold  of  one  click 
to  compare  it  with  the  succeeding  clicks,  but  I  can't  hold  onto  more 
than  eight  or  nine."  The  simple  suggestion  of  any  grouping  was 
sufficient  to  produce  that  grouping.  Groups  of  two,  three,  five,  six 
and  eight  follow  immediately  the  suggestion  of  any  of  them.  A 
group  of  seven  was  more  difficult.  Groups  of  all  numbers  were 
generally  accented  upon  the  first,  but  the  accent  could  be  volun- 
tarily changed.  In  the  8-group  the  subject  had  a  tendency  to  accent 
every  other  one.  The  grouping  was  generally  accompanied  by 
visible  motions  of  the  head  and  lips.  A  slight  feeling  of  muscle 
tension  in  the  ear  and  back  of  the  scalp  marked  one  group  from 
another.  There  was  a  feeling  of  innervation  of  the  muscles  con- 
nected with  attention. 

When  the  attention  was  directed  to  respiration  the  grouping  was 
not  affected.  Respiration  was  more  inclined  to  follow  the  group- 
ing. The  heart-beat  coming  in  about  the  same  time  as  the  accent 
in  a  4-group,  tended  to  coincide  with  it.  Time,  .2  sec.  The  tendency 
to  group  was  still  present  in  a  small  degree.  The  sound  was 
quieting.  It  suggested  slowly  dripping  water.  Time,  1.5  sec.  The 
suggestion  was  of  a  big  clock.  After  listening  to  a  fast  rate  for  a 
time  and  then  to  the  rate  of  .687  sec.,  he  decided  that  he  felt  no 
tendency  to  group  the  sounds  of  the  latter.  Time,  .116  sec.  The 
most  natural  group  was  eight,  with  a  slight  tendency  to  divide  into 


EHYTHM.  49 

two  4-groups.  Time,  .134  sec.  The  subject  found  a  4-group  more 
natural  than  an  8  with  this  rate?  but  felt  some  tendency  to  make  a 
double  4-group  instead  of  a  simple  4-group.  Time,  .116  sec.  An 
8- group  composed  of  two  4-groups  was  most  pleasant.  Time,  .268 
sec.  His  most  pleasant  group  was  two,  but  these  groups  tended  to 
combine  to  form  double  2-groups.  When  two  strong  clicks  followed 
by  two  weak  ones  formed  the  series,  he  grouped  by  fours,  but 
accented  the  second  and  fourth.  He  described  the  phenomonon  as 
a  summation  in  the  second  :  "The  after-image  of  the  first  was  left 
to  the  second  to  increase  its  strength."  When  the  subject  heard 
the  rhythm  of  the  chronograph,  he  grouped  the  sounds  accordingly. 

Subject  10.    Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  4-group  appeared  immediately.  The  subject 
could  suggest  other  groups  of  three,  five,  six  and  eight.  The  3- 
group  was  accented  upon  the  first,  and  the  4-group  upon  the  first  and 
third.  During  one  experiment  the  subject  said  the  accents  in  the 
4-group  were  not  distinguishable,  but  the  groups  were  separated  by 
a  slight  interval.  The  5-group  was  accented  upon  the  first  and 
fourth,  the  6-group  upon  every  other  one,  and  the  8-group  was  a 
repetition  of  two  4-groups.  Higher  groups  of  threes  as  far  as  four 
were  easily  obtained.  The  first  and  third  groups  of  threes  were 
accented.  Higher  groups  of  fours  were  not  easy  or  distinct. 
During  all  the  experiments  unconscious  movements  in  the  tongue 
were  present.  A  slight  muscular  contraction  took  place  with  the 
accented  click.  Other  movements  of  the  head,  trunk,  feet 
and  hands  were  visible,  and  the  subject  found  it  difficult  to  restrain 
them.  Time,  .134  sec.  These  sounds  were  grouped  by  eight  and 
the  grouping  was  pleasant  and  animating.  Time,  .156  sec.  The 
first  suggestion  was  of  a  6-group.  The  8-group  was  difficult.  Time. 
.268  sec.  This  yielded  to  a  4-group,  which  the  subject  said  required 
about  the  same  time  as  the  previous  8-group.  Time,  .78  sec.  The 
2- group  was  the  only  one  practicable.  The  suspense  for  others  was 
too  great.  Time,  .lie  sec.  During  this  experiment  the  rate  yielded 
most  easily  to  a  double  4-group,  and  when  the  time  was  changed  to 
.45  sec.  he  had  a  similar  feeling  with  the  group  of  two,  but  one  click 
stood  in  the  place  of  the  4-group  with  the  previous  rate. 

Time,  .116  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  subject  got  a 
very  pleasant  and  "harmonious"  8-group.  Time,  .134  sec.  Every 
eighth  was  accented.  The  subject  was  less  animated.  He  said, 
"The  group  was  more  staid  and  steady.  It  had  lost  its  tones." 
Time,  .17  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  It  now  required  an 
effort  of  attention  to  get  the  8-group.  It  grew  more  pleasant  as 
the  subject  became  accustomed  to  it.  Time,  .268  sec.  Every  eighth 
was  accented.  The  grouping  was  by  four.  Sometimes  the,  subject 
accented  every  other  one  and  felt  disposed  to  count  thus  :  one  and 
two  and  three  and  four,  and  repeating  this  between  the  accented 
clicks. 

Subject  II.1     Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .5  sec.  The  4-group  suggested  itself  immediately.  The 
first  and  third  clicks  were  accented,  the  first  stronger  than  the 
third.  Sometimes  the  third  might  be  stronger  than  the  first.  It 
was  possible  to  accent  the  second  and  fourth.  When  the  subject 
gave  close  and  critical  attention  to  the  sound,  there  was  no  tendency 
to  grouping.  The  grouping  seemed  most  clear  with  an  indifferent 
state  of  mind.  He  showed  a  decided  preference  for  2  and  4-groups. 
Time,  .25  sec.  The  4-group  was  most  natural.  Time,  .115  sec.  This 

'The  subject  knew  beforehand  that  this  was  to  be  an  experiment  in  the  rhythmical 
grouping  oi'  sounds. 


50  BOLTON  : 

rate  yielded  to  an  8-grouping,  each  group  being  composed  of  four 
strong  and  four  weak  sounds.  At  other  times  with  this  rate  the 
sounds  seemed  to  rise  and  fall  at  regular  intervals,  which  the  subject 
described  as  a  waxing  and  waning  of  the  attention.  Time,  .167 
sec.  The  subject  grouped  by  four,  but  felt  a  straining  for  a  larger 
group.  Time,  1.67  sec.  He  grouped  by  two  and  visualized  the 
pendulum.  One  click  came  during  each  half  swing.  When  the 
subject  gave  attention  to  his  breathing,  he  made  an  inspiration  last 
during  the  time  of  one  click,  and  expiration  during  the  time  of 
another.  The  first  click  was  louder  than  the  last.  Time,  .115  sec. 
When  the  subject  gave  attention  to  his  pulse  the  groups  corre- 
sponded to  the  time  of  the  heart-beats.  The  click  which  came  near 
the  beat  was  louder  and  became  the  first  in  the  group.  The  pulse 
seemed  to  reinforce  the  sensation  of  the  sound.  When  the  attention 
was  directed  to  respiration,  the  clicks  increased  in  intensity  during 
inspiration  and  were  grouped  by  two  and  decreased  in  intensity 
during  expiration.  He  visualized  a  curved  line  which  rose  during 
inspiration  and  fell  during  expiration.  Smaller  undulations  in  the 
larger  curve  corresponded  to  the  2-group.  A  melody  always 
appears  to  him  as  a  zigzag  line,  in  which  the  rises  correspond  with 
every  two  notes.  Time,  .156  sec.  He  grouped  the  clicks  by  eight 
and  visualized  an  ellipse  with  four  points  upon  either  side.  The 
clicks  seemed  to  locate  themselves  on  these  points. 

The  subject  showed  a  strong  tendency  to  muscular  movements. 
He  felt  an  impulse  to  dance,  clap  the  hands  and  tap  the  toes  and 
fingers  upon  the  accented  click.  When  the  rate  was  .286  sec.,  this 
tendency  to  muscular  movements  was  stronger  than  with  the  other 
rates.  There  was  something  animating  about  this  rate. 

Time,  .3  sec.  Every  fifth  was  accented.  The  clicks  were 
grouped  by  five.  The  accented  click  always  appeared  as  the 
fourth  in  the  5- group  and  longer  than  the  others.  When  this 
click  was  further  increased  in  intensity,  it  seemed  very  much 
longer  than  the  rest  and  appeared  as  an  extraneous  sound 
which  did  not  enter  into  the  group.  The  other  four  sounds  then 
formed  a  group  by  themselves.  When  every  sixth  was  accented, 
the  accented  sound  again  appeared  as  an  extraneous  sound.  It 
simply  disturbed  his  mental  habits  of  forming  some  other  groups. 
When  two  clicks  in  every  five  were  made  stronger  with  one  weak 
click  between  the  two  strong  ones,  the  grouping  was  still  by  five 
but  it  was  a  combination  of  a  2-group  and  a  3-group.  When  three 
strong  and  two  weak  clicks  formed  a  group,  it  was  composed  then 
of  a  3-group  and  a  2-group.  The  3-group  contained  two  strong 
sounds  and  one  weak,  and  the  2-group  one  strong  and  one  weak. 
A  short  pause  came  after  the  fourth  sound,  which  made  it  impossible 
to  make  the  5-group  appear  as  composed  of  a2-group  and  a  3-group. 
Time,  .268  sec.  Every  third  sound  was  accented.  This  accent 
simply  broke  up  the  tendency  of  the  subject  to  group  by  four  and 
did  not  compel  him  to  group  by  three.  When  every  sixth  was 
accented,  he  grouped  by  six,  and  accented  the  first  and  fifth,  but 
there  was  a  strain  towards  a  4-group.  Time,  .167  sec.  Every  sixth 
was  accented.  With  this  rate  the  6- group  was  pleasant  and  did 
not  tend  so  strongly  towards  a  4-group.  Time,  .137  sec.  Every 
sixth  was  accented.  The  6 -group  was  pleasant,  and  it  tended 
to  unite  into  higher  groups  of  two  with  the  pendulum -swing  move- 
ment. 

Time,  .208  sec.  When  the  subject  listened  to  the  sound  of  the 
chronograph,  which  made  a  distinct  and  strong  8-rhythm,  he  was 
unable  to  form  any  other  group  than  eight.  The  8- group  was  com- 
posed of  two  4- groups,  the  first  of  which  was  much  stronger  than 


RHYTHM.  51 

the  second.  When  he  listened  to  the  chronograph,  which  gave  a 
6-rhythm,  which  was  composed  of  two  3-rhythms,  he  was  unable 
for  a  time  to  get  anything  but  a  6 -group,  but  this  faded  out  with 
continued  effort  and  gave  place  to  his  previous  4-groups.  The 
4- groups  were  then  grouped  by  two  with  the  swing  of  the  pendulum. 
Time,  .134  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  grouping  was  by 
eight,  and  the  8-groups  were  then  grouped  by  two. 

Time,  .116  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented,  and  the  grouping 
was  by  eight,  and  pleasant.  Time,  .134  sec.  Every  eighth  was 
accented.  The  subject  took  no  spontaneous  interest  in  the  8-group 
at  this  rate.  The  period  seemed  to  be  too  long.  "It  breaks  off 
with  a  dead  end,"  he  said.  Time,  .17  sec.  Every  eighth  was 
accented,  but  the  grouping  was  by  fours.  The  accented  click  was 
simply  a  disturbing  element.  The  series  did  not  group  easily  by 
either  four  or  eight.  Time,  .208  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented. 
The  grouping  at  this  rate  was  distinctly  by  four.  The  accented 
click  acted  somewhat  as  a  disturbing  element.  When  every  fourth 
was  accented  at  this  rate,  the  4- grouping  became  pleasant,  and  the 
accented  sound  was  the  first  in  each  group.  The  4-groups  were 
grouped  by  two  with  the  swing  of  the  pendulum.  Time,  .17  sec. 
Every  fourth  was  accented,  but  the  time  seemed  to  be  too  fast  for 
a  pleasant  4- group. 

When  every  sixth  was  accented,  and  the  time  .323  sec.,  the 
grouping  was  by  three,  but  the  tendency  to  a  4- grouping  was  so 
strong  that  it  was  possible  to  get  a  4- group  in  which  every  sixth 
sound  was  accented,  the  accented  sound  shifting  its  position  in  the 
group.  The  accented  click  seemed  longer,  and  a  longer  interval 
followed  it.  When  a  very  weak  sound  was  followed  by  a  very 
intense  one,  the  sound  of  the  loud  click  spread  itself  over  the 
weaker  one. 

Subject  12.  Considerable  musical  talent  and  great  interest  in 
music.  Accustomed  to  introspective  study. 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  subject  began  immediately  to  count  the  clicks, 
accenting  every  third.  He  unconsciously  rocked  himself  in  the 
chair  to  keep  time.  He  thought  the  rate  slowed  up  at  times  and 
then  quickened  again.  The  grouping  was  changed  from  three  to 
four  by  simply  thinking  of  the  number.  He  believed  there  was 
some  unconscious  muscular  movement  about  the  change  from  one 
rate  to  another.  He  could  suggest  a  change  by  simply  tapping  with 
his  fingers.  When  he  changed  from  a  3- group  to  a  4- group,  the 
4-group  seemed  too  long  at  first,  though  he  became  accustomed  to 
it.  In  a  short  time  the  grouping  seemed  to  change  of  itself  into 
three  and  then  again  into  four.  The  4-group  was  inclined  to  fall 
into  two  2-groups,  the  subject  unconsciously  nodding  his  head  to 
every  other  sound.  He  was  able  to  suggest  a  5 -group,  in  which 
the  first  and  third  were  accented,  the  third  more  strongly. 
He  could  accent  any  click  in  the  group,  but  the  first  and  the  third 
seemed  easiest.  Time,  .156  sec.  The  6-group  appeared  imme- 
diately and  spontaneously,  and  then  broke  up  into  two  3-groups. 
He  suggested  a  double  4- group,,  which  gave  rise  to  a  feeling  of  a 
slower  pace.  It  was  not  so  distinct  as  the  double  3-group.  This 
had  a  kind  of  impelling  force.  The  subject  attempted  to  step  in 
time  with  the  double  3-group;  and  then  with  the  4-group.  The 
double  3-group  required  a  sprightly  step.  It  was  exciting.  The 
4-group  at  this  rate  did  not  appeal  to  him;  it  didn't  take  hold.  This 
rate  was  more  stimulating  than  the  previous  one.  Time,  .115  sec. 
The  subject  dropped  into  a  4-group,  but  the  three  was  found  more 
stimulating.  It  was  difficult,  however,  for  him  to  put  aside  the 


52  BOLTON  : 

previous  rate,  and  adapt  himself  to  the  new  one.  One  click  in 
each  group,  however,  seemed  distinctly  louder  than  the  rest. 
When  he  grouped  by  four,  it  easily  passed  into  an  8-  group,  but  the 
8-group  was  not  so  clear  as  the  6-group.  He  imagined  a  wheel 
going  around,  making  six  clicks  to  a  revolution.  When  he  changed 
the  telephone  from  one  ear  to  the  other,  the  grouping  changed 
from  six  to  a  double  4-group,  and  persisted  for  a  time.  The  5-group 
came  only  with  difficulty.  Time,  .76  sec.  The  grouping  was  by 
twos.  The  subject  imagined  the  clock  at  home.  The  3-group  was 
suggested  by  an  image  of  a  musical  conductor  beating  time.  Time, 
1.44  sec.  The  subject  gets  the  rhythm  of  the  pendulum  swing  with- 
out suggestion.  He  suggests  also  a  3-group,  which  recalls  the  time 
of  church  music.  Time,  1.66  sec.  He  finds  it  easy  to  imagine  inter- 
mediate sounds  between  the  actual  clicks,  and  these  he  groups  by 
three,  the  real  click  being  the  accented  click  in  the  3-group.  Time, 
.286  sec.  In  order  to  obtain  a  notion  of  a  rhythmic  series  —  one  of 
uniform  intensity  —  the  subject  turned  his  attention  backward,  and 
saw  a  series  of  images  to  which  he  was  adding  one  all  the  time.  He 
throws  his  attention  upon  what  comes,  and  studies  the  nature  of 
the  noise  to  see  if  the  timbre  is  the  same.  It  is  a  comparative 
effort.  But  in  spite  of  all  efforts  the  series  groups  into  a  2-group 
at  times.  When  a  relay  sounder  was  connected  in  the  circuit  of 
a  vibrator,  which  made  20  vibrations  to  the  second,  the  subject 


was  still  able  to  effect  a  grouping  of  the  sounds  into  either  3  or 

tapping  with  the  fi 
dispensed  with  the  suggestion,  the  clicks  of  the  relay  signal  were 


4-  groups  by  tapping  with  the  fingers  upon  the  table.      When  he 


perfectly  uniform,  except  perhaps  a  slight  waxing  and  waning  in 
intensity,  due  probably  to  the  waxing  and  waning  of  the  attention 
towards  the  sound.    There  was  no  real  grouping. 
When  a  longer  interval  was  introduced  every  fourth,  the  clicks 


came  in  a  group  of  four,  but  there  was  nothing  satisfactory  about 
the  group.  The  clicks  did  not  form  an  organic  group.  Each  group 
of  four  stood  rather  as  a  single  compound  impression.  There 


was  no  organic  relation  between  the  separate  clicks  in  the  group. 
When  the  rate  was  rapid,  the  groups  of  four  were  grouped  into 
higher  groups,  the  groups  of  four  standing  as  single  impressions. 
When  the  rate  was  slow  the  long  interval  might  come  between  the 
groups  or  anywhere  within  it.  There  was  something  wanting, 
something  to  be  looked  for  in  the  interval. 

As  the  nature  of  the  group,  the  subject  described  his  feeling  as  a 
tendency  to  go  back  when  he  had  heard  three  or  four  clicks,  as  the 
case  might  be.  He  says  he  has  a  "mouthful" — a  unity — and  when 
he  has  one,  he  seeks  to  get  another.  The  same  process  continues 
to  repeat  itself.  When  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  timbre  of 
the  click,  he  got  no  grouping,  but  when  he  looked  at  the  series  as  a 
whole,  the  grouping  was  clear  and  spontaneous.  There  was  not, 
however,  necessarily  an  accent  in  the  group. 

Subject  13.  Considerable  musical  talent  and  training.  A  lover 
of  2-4  music. 

Time,  .285  sec.  It  suggests  the  gallop  of  a  horse —  a  short  gallop 
— and  the  clock.  There  is  a  breathless  feeling  about  it.  It  is  the 
sound  of  car  wheels — the  whole  train.  It  has  a  double  vibration. 
The  clicks  are  grouped  by  two  or  by  four.  The  group  seems  to 
close  with  a  rising  inflection ;  the  last  is  apparently  accented 
lightly,  as  the  first  is  strongly.  The  2-group  prevailed  over  the 
four.  Parts  of  "  Erl  King"  are  suggested  by  this  grouping.  An 
objective  suggestion  was  displeasing  to  the  subject.  The  subject 
preferred  a  mental  suggestion  in  order  to  change  the  grouping  from 
two  to  anything  that  was  desired.  By  such  a  suggestion  the  sub- 


RHYTHM.  53 

ject  was  able  to  get  most  any  group  up  to  eight.  The  eight  group 
was  not  clear  ;  the  accents  were  not  sufficiently  prominent.  The 
shorter  measures  are  more  strongly  accented.  Time,  .115  sec. 
This  rate  had  a  bad  effect ;  it  was  tormenting.  The  grouping  was 
by  four  of  a  particular  pitch,  followed  by  four  of  a  lower  pitch. 
The  subject  might  group  the  clicks  by  two  in  the  same  way,  but 
with  less  clearness.  Time,  .352  sec.  This  rate  suggested  something 
going  around,  and  every  other  sound  was  accented.  When  the 
3-group  was  suggested,  the  first  click  was  accented,  and  the  group 
closed  with  a  rising  inflection.  Higher  groups  of  3- groups  could  be 
obtained  as  far  as  four.  The  groups  seemed  to  rise  and  fall  in  inten- 
sity. At  this  rate  also  the  short  groups  were  more  strongly 
accented  than  the  long.  When  the  subject  suggested  a  4-group, 
the  first  and  the  third  were  accented,  the  first  probably  stronger. 
The  4-groups  may  be  grouped  again  by  four.  Twenty  was  the 
greatest  number  of  clicks  that  the  subject  could  grasp  easily  in 
this  way.  The  grouping  becomes  lost  and  disconnected  with  larger 
numbers.  The  first  groups  in  the  larger  groups  were  of  greater 
intensity,  and  the  last  of  a  lesser  intensity.  The  intensity  of  each 
succeeding  group  seemed  to  be  less.  This  rate  was  said  to  have  the 
most  "  aesthetic  effect."  Time,  .268  sec.  The  2-group  was  most 
easy ;  a  double  2-group  was  pleasant.  The  general  effect  of  this 
rate  was  a  hurried  feeling.  The  previous  rate  had  been  restful. 
Time,  .156  sec.  The  4-group  was  most  natural,  and  was  accented  upon 
the  first  and  the  third.  The  6-group  appeared  without  volun- 
tary effort.  There  may  have  been  a  mental  suggestion  of  the  six. 
Time,  .78  sec.  There  was  no  real  grouping.  It  seemed  painfully 
slow.  Time,  1.44  sec.  The  subject  supplied  two  intermediate 
sounds  between  the  clicks,  and  grouped  by  three.  The  actual  click 
was  the  accented  sound  in  each  group,  and  came  first.  Time,  1.66 
sec.  The  subject  supplied  three  intermediate  sounds  between  the 
clicks,  and  grouped  by  fours.  The  real  sound  came  first.  Time,  .134 
sec.  The  double  4-group  was  most  natural,  and  the  subject  breathed 
with  it.  When  every  eighth  was  accented,  the  subject  did  not 
become  aware  of  the  accent.  The  grouping  was  spoken  of  as  being  so 
strong  that  it  could  not  be  gotten  rid  of.  The  groups  of  eight  were 
grouped  by  two  with  the  swing  of  the  pendulum.  The  clicks  in  the 
8-group  seem  to  decrease  in  intensity  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end.  Time,  .116  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  movement 
was  the  same  as  with  the  previous  rate,  or  perhaps  in  place  of  the 
pendulum  movement  the  subject  visualized  an  object  moving  up 
and  down,  the  upward  motion  lasting  during  the  time  of  an 
8-group,  and  the  downward  motion  during  another  8-group. 
There  was  apparently  a  longer  pause  after  the  second  group.  The 
subject  felt  a  strong  tendency  to  nod  the  head,  and  keep  the  time 
by  tapping  the  toe.  Time,  .17  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented. 
The  8-group  lacked  completeness.  It  was  not  so  smooth  as 
the  8-group  before  ;  it  was  distinctly  divided  into  two  4-groups. 
The  accented  sounds  were  generally  unpleasant.  The  subject  "  has 
not  the  restful  impression  of  evenness"  which  had  characterized 
the  uniform  series. 

Time,  .323  sec.  When  the  clicks  were  all  of  the  same  intensity, 
the  slightest  suggestion  of  any  sort  was  sufficient  to  cause  the  clicks 
to  fall  into  the  group  suggested.  Even  when  the  attention  of  the 
subject  was  not  called  to  a  suggestion,  and  the  subject  apparently 
did  not  attend,  it  would  change  the  grouping  to  that  suggested. 

At  times  the  subject  had  a  feeling  which  was  described  as 
"  awful,"  that  the  chronograph  was  slowing  up  and  about  to  stop. 
When  stronger  clicks  were  introduced,  the  effect  was  unpleasant. 


54  BOLTON  : 

The  following  rates  were  given  in  rapid  succession:  Time,  .268  sec. 
The  clicks  were  grouped  by  two,  and  the  2-groups  seemed  to  rise 
and  fall  in  intensity  at  regular  intervals.  Subject  could  suggest 
other  groupings,  but  it  drifted  back  to  this,  unless  the  subject  kept 
up  the  suggestion  of  some  other.  Time,  .208  sec.  The  grouping 
was  by  four.  The  rate  was  unpleasantly  fast  for  a  time.  Time, 
.134  sec.  The  grouping  was  by  four  ;  the  4-groups  seemed  to  rise 
and  fall  in  intensity,  every  other  one  being  more  intense.  The 
subject  unconsciously  breathed  with  this  secondary  grouping. 
Every  eighth  was  made  more  intense.  The  subject  did  not  detect 
the  accent,  but  said  the  grouping  by  eight  was  so  clear  that  it  could 
not  be  avoided.  The  8-groups  tended  to  group  into  2-groups. 
Time,  .116  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  clicks  were 
grouped  by  eight,  and  the  8-groups  were  grouped  by  a  wave-like 
motion.  There  appeared  to  be  a  longer  interval  between  every 
two  groups.  Time,  .17  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The 
grouping  was  primarily  by  two,  and  the  2-groups  were  grouped  by 
four.  The  intensity  of  the  clicks  seemed  to  decrease  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end.  The  grouping  was  rough  in  comparison  with 
that  for  the  previous  rate.  This  form  of  grouping  gave  place  finally 
to  a  double  4-grouping,  and  the  subject  was  strongly  inclined  to 
keep  the  time  by  nodding  or  tapping  with  the  toe.  Especially 
strong  was  this  impulse  when  strength  of  the  accent  was  increased. 
Time,  .208  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  8-group  was  now 
more  distinctly  divided  into  two  4-groups.  This  grouping  had 
more  "dignity  and  force,  but  was  not  so  tripping  as  the  fast  rate 
was."  The  8-group  was  not  so  complete  as  it  was  with  the  faster 
rates. 

Subject  14.    Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

The  first  suggestion  of  a  grouping  was  by  eight,  and  the  8-group 
was  divided  into  two  4-groups.  When  a  2-group  was  suggested 
the  subject  agreed  that  he  could  get  it,  but  the  2-groups  were  again 
grouped  by  two  into  4-groups,  and  the  4- groups  by  two  into 
8-groups.  A  6 -group  was  suggested  by  counting  six,  but  there 
seemed  to  be  a  division  corresponding  to  4-groups.  The  subject 
was  under  the  impression  for  a  time  that  there  was  a  longer  interval 
or  four  different  intensities  of  sounds  which  made  this  4-grouping. 
The  4- group  was  accented  upon  the  first  and  the  third.  The 
3-group  did  not  succeed  very  well.  The  subject  seemed  to  have  a 
habit  of  forming  groups  of  two,  and  the  strongest  kind  of  a  sugges- 
tion was  not  sufficient  to  put  it  aside  for  a  3-group.  Time,  .156  sec. 
The  8-group,  which  was  divided  into  two  4-groups,  was  the  most 
natural,  and  seemed  to  prevail  over  all  others.  Time,  .78  sec. 
The  2-group  was  most  easily  obtained,  but  it  was  possible  to  sug- 
gest either  a  3-group  or  a  4-group.  The  subject  was  not  sure 
whether  he  preferred  a  2-group  to  a  4-group.  He  also  found  the 
3-group  quite  pleasant.  Time,  1.44  sec.  The  2-group  was  most 
natural,  and  the  subject  could  still  suggest  either  a  3  or  a  4-group, 
but  when  he  dispensed  with  suggestion,  he  returned  to  the  2-group. 

The  subject  has  noticed  rhythms  in  the  sound  of  mill  wheels. 
When  he  gave  his  attention  to  these  sounds  he  visualized  a  series 
of  points  on  a  line  which  he  counted  by  four  or  two.  When  he  was 
asked  to  count  a  series  of  dots,  he  said  they  were  divided  off  into 
twos  by  a  bracket  above  them.  It  has  always  been  a  habit  with 
him  to  count  objects  by  two. 

When  every  fifth  was  accented,  he  grouped  by  five;  the  accented 
click  came  fourth  in  the  group,  and  it  seemed  longer  than  the  rest. 
When  the  accented  click  was  made  more  intense  still,  its  time 
seemed  longer  than  the  rest.  When  one  of  the  five  was  made 


RHYTHM.  55 

weaker  than  the  rest,  they  formed  a  somewhat  irregular  group  that 
was  unpleasant.  The  weak  sound  caused  a  disturbance  in  the  group 
which  was  not  present  when  a  louder  sound  was  introduced. 
When  all  the  clicks  were  made  more  intense,  the  rate  seemed  to  be 
slower  than  at  other  times. 

Subject  15.    Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  sound  suggested  the  clock.  It  was  more  easy 
and  natural  to  regard  every  other  one  stronger.  Groups  of  three, 
four  and  five  were  suggested.  The  4-group  was  the  most  natural; 
the  first  and  third  clicks  were  accented.  At  times  the  4-group 
seemed  to  divide  into  two2-groups.  When  the  subject  attempted  to 
compare  the  3-group  with  the  4-group  in  point  of  their  agreeable- 
ness,  the  three  group  appeared  as  three,  with  one  sound  coming 
between  the  groups,  thus  :  1,  2,  3,  1,— 1,  2,  3,  1,— 1,  2,  3,  1.  This 
extra  sound  seemed  to  occupy  a  blank  space  between  the  three 
groups.  During  other  experiments  afterwards,  the  3-group 
appeared  in  this  form.  The  4-groups  were  easily  grouped  by  two. 
They  would  combine  into  110  higher  groups  as  simple  4- groups. 
The  subject  was  able  with  great  effort  to  combine  two  double 
4-groups.  When  the  subject  counted  objects,  he  usually  grouped 
them  by  twos.  The  objects  seemed  to  be  joined  together  by  bars. 
Time,  .57  sec.  This  rate  was  very  quieting.  The  4-group  was  most 
natural.  The  first  and  third  or  the  second  and  fourth  might  be 
accented.  A  longer  interval  appeared  between  the  separate  groups. 
A  long  interval  generally  follows  the  accented  click  whether  it  is 
imaginary  or  real.  The  subject  regards  real  accents  as  extraneous 
intruders.  They  introduce  a  long  interval,  and  for  that  reason  the 
series  seems  irregular.  By  irregularity  he  understood  a  difference 
in  time  interval  of  the  clicks.  The  accented  click  seemed  nearer 
to  the  preceding  click  than  the  others.  When  two  real  accents  of 
unequal  intensity  were  put  into  a  group  of  eight,  the  interval  fol- 
lowing the  more  intense  click  was  the  longer,  and  gave  to  a  series 
a  very  irregular  appearance.  When  the  accented  clicks  were 
dropped  out,  the  series  became  regular  again. 

lime,  .268  sec.  This  rate  was  very  favorable  for  voluntary 
changes  of  grouping.  He  could  suggest  any  grouping  that  he  might 
desire  within  limits.  During  every  experiment  the  subject  mani- 
fested a  strong  tendency  to  some  kind  of  muscular  movements. 
Any  kind  of  muscular  contractions  would  suffice  as  a  suggestion  of 
a  grouping.  He  said  he  either  counted  the  clicks  or  made  the 
proper  muscular  adjustments  for  counting.  There  was  mental 
counting  always  at  the  start.  He  made  unconscious  movements 
with  the  eyelids.  Motions  of  the  head  were  clearly  visible  the 
whole  time.  When  the  subject  was  asked  to  restrain  all  movements 
of  vhich  he  was  conscious,  he  said  there  was  great  difficulty  in 
keeping  the  grouping.  The  telephone  was  disconnected,  and  the 
subject  was  requested  to  restrain  his  muscular  movements  or 
attempts  to  count.  When  the  telephone  was  connected  again,  he  said 
that  the  grouping  had  kept  up  during  the  interval.  Although  he 
had  restrained  all  visible  motions,  slight  muscular  contractions 
were  observed  in  the  eyelids  at  the  proper  intervals  of  the  accented 
clicks.  He  said  it  was  possible  to  keep  the  grouping  by  imagining 
a  series  of  colors  passing  before  the  eyes.  He  spoke  of  a  feeling  in 
the  eyes  as  "  muscular  color  sensation."  He  seems  to  have  felt  an 
adjustment  of  the  muscles  ordinarily  used  in  visual  attention.  At 
no  time  was  he  conscious  of  the  muscular  contractions  of  the  mus- 
cles in  the  eyelids. 

Time,  .57  sec.  Every  fifth  was  accented.  The  series  was  grouped 
by  five  and  the  accented  click  came  anywhere  in  the  group.  It  was 


56  BOLTON  : 

more  generally  and  naturally  near  the  first  place.  Time,  .268  sec. 
The  3- group  could  be  suggested,  and  was  more  naturally  accented 
upon  the  first,  sometimes  upon  the  third.  The  6 -group  was  strongly 
accented  upon  the  third  and  slightly  upon  the  first  and  fifth.  With 
a  uniform  series,  the  5- group  required  a  distinct  effort  and  was  then 
accented  upon  the  last.  In  general  the  long  and  complicated 
groups  were  less  differentiated;  they  ran  together.  The  6- group 
broke  up  into  two  3- groups  and  the  8  group  into  two  4-groups. 
A  7 -group  was  very  difficult  to  get.  It  would  run  readily  into  an 
8-group.  Time,  .134  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  8-group 
was  pleasant  at  this  rate.  When  the  time  was  .116  sec.  and  every 
eighth  accented,  there  was  a  tendency  to  group  the  8-groups  by  two. 
During  a  subsequent  experiment  when  the  time  was  .116  sec.,  the 
series  seemed  to  rise  and  fall  in  intensity  with  no  definite  grouping. 
Whenever  an  accent  was  put  in,  it  made  the  series  irregular  and 
unpleasant.  The  series  became  pleasant  in  proportion  as  it  was 
uniform,  and  with  this  rate  the  subject  perceived  only  a  rhythmic 
rise  and  fall  in  intensity. 

Subject  16.    Considerable  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .3  sec.  His  first  suggestion  was  that  every  other  one  was 
stronger  in  intensity,  the  stronger  one  coming  first  in  the  group  of 
two.  For  a  time,  the  subject  did  not  discover  that  the  sounds  were 
uniform.  He  could  suggest  a  4-group,  in  which  the  first  and  third 
were  accented,  the  first  stronger  than  the  third.  It  was  difficult  to 
get  a  5-group,  but  when  the  subject  did,  the  accents  were  upon  the 
first  and  third.  The  2-groups  might  be  grouped  by  fives,  in  which 
case  the  first  and  third  2-groups  were  more  intense  than  the  others; 
4-groups  of  twos  were  accented  upon  the  first  and  third  2-groups; 
2  and  3- groups  of  twos  were  accented  upon  the  first.  Higher 
groups  of  3-groups  as  far  as  five  were  possible.  The  accents  were 
the  same  as  for  higher  groups  of  twos.  Three-groups  of  three  were 
the  most  pleasing.  Higher  groups  of  four  were  more  difficult.  The 
accents  could  not  be  kept  clear.  From  early  childhood,  the  subject 
has  observed  and  taken  pleasure  in  the  rhythms  in  the  sounds  of 
the  fanning  mill,  feed  cutter  and  other  machinery.  The  4-rhythm 
was  the  prevailing  rhythm  with  him.  The  puffs  of  the  locomotive 
are  grouped  by  fours,  the  first  and  the  third  being  accented,  the 
first  stronger  than  the  third.  He  associates  the  pendulum  with  she 
2-group.  With  the  4-group,  he  associates  the  locomotive  o:  a 
wheel  turning  around,  making  four  sounds  to  each  revolution.  The 
3-group  generally  requires  attention  to  keep  it  and  a  suggestioi  to 
begin.  The  5-group  breaks  up  into  a  2-group  and  a  3-group.  The 
6- group  generally  divides  into  two  3-groups.  Time,  .176  sec.  This 
rate  seemed  most  favorable  fora  6-group.  It  was  composed  of  two 
3-groups,  the  subject  visualizing  the  pendulum  which  grouped  the 
3-groups  by  two.  In  general,  the  subject  preferred  short  groups  to 
long  ones.  The  shorter  groups  were  simpler.  He  preferred  also  his 
own  accents  to  real  accents.  When  he  listened  to  the  sound  of  the 
chronograph,  which  was  distinctly  rhythmical,  he  grouped  the 
sounds  accordingly.  When  he  was  dull  and  tired,  faster  rates  vere 
generally  more  satisfactory. 

The  following  rates  were  given  in  rapid  succession:  Time,  .323 
sec.  The  clicks  were  grouped  most  easily  by  the  pendulum- sving 
movement.  The  subject  could  visualize  a  revolving  wheel  which 
made  four  strokes  during  each  revolution  and  thus  group  by  four. 
Time,  .263  sec.  The  4-grouping  was  decidedly  pleasant  and  com- 
pelling. It  required  an  effort  of  attention  to  group  by  three.  He 
visualized  the  locomotive  wheel  with  the  4-group.  He  could  group 
the  clicks  by  two  with  a  pendulum- swing  movement,  but  "  it  was 


EHYTHM.  57 

too  fast  to  be  real  natural."  Time,  .137  sec.  This  was  "a  train  at 
full  speed."  The  rate  was  more  pleasant  and  enlivening  than  any 
previous  rate.  It  required  very  little  effort  of  attention  to  get 
either  a  3  or  4- group.  A  6- group  was  easily  suggested,  but  the 
group  divided  easily  into  two  3-groups.  Time,  .208  sec.  The  6-group 
was  less  easy  than  it  was  with  the  previous  rate.  Time,  .137  sec.  The 
clicks  grouped  readily  by  three  or  four.  Higher  grouping  of  3- groups 
by  two  or  three  required  a  suggestion  to  start,  and  it  seemed 
to  continue  of  itself;  4- groups  might  be  grouped  by  the  pendulum- 
swing  movement.  Every  sixth  was  accented.  The  6-grouping  was 
necessary  and  pleasant.  The  accented  sound  took  away  the  effort 
that  had  been  required  before  for  a  6-grouping.  The  6-group  might 
be  divided  into  three  2-groups  or  two  3-groups.  The  accented  sound 
always  came  at  the  beginning  of  the  6-grpup.  Time,  .167  sec. 
Every  sixth  was  accented.  The  6-group  divided  easily  into  three 
2-groups  or  two  3-groups.  Time,  .323  sec.  Every  sixth  was 
accented.  The  grouping  was  by  two.  The  accented  sound 
grouped  the  2-groups  by  three.  The  span  for  a  6-group  was 
disagreeable.  It  was  too  long.  The  accented  sound  might  be  over- 
looked and  the  series  grouped  by  four.  Time,  .167  sec.  Every 
sixth  was  accented.  It  was  less  easy  to  overlook  the  accented 
click  than  before.  The  accent  forced  a  grouping  by  three. 

Time,  .263  sec.  It  was  most  natural  to  group  by  two  with  the 
pendulum- swing.  Time,  .208  sec.  A  4-group  was  most  easy. 
When  the  subject  heard  the  chronograph,  which  gave  a  6-rhythm 
compounded  of  two  3-rhythms,  he  grouped  the  sounds  accordingly. 
Time,  134  sec.  A  3  or  a  4-group  was  equally  pleasant  and  easy. 
The  sound  of  the  chronograph,  which  now  gave  an  8-rhythm  com- 
pounded of  two  4-rhythms,  compelled  a  grouping  of  the  sounds 
accordingly.  The  following  rates  were  given  in  rapid  succession 
during  a  single  experiment:  Time,  .268  sec.  A  2  or  a  4-group 
was  easy.  A  3-group  could  be  suggested.  Time,  .208  sec.  A 
3-group  was  suggested,  but  a  2  or  a  4-group  was  easier.  Time,  .17 
sec.  A  3  or  a  4-group  was  equally  pleasant  and  easy.  There  was 
no  preference.  Time,  .116  sec.  The  series  could  be  grouped  by 
three  or  four.  When  every  eighth  was  accented,  the  grouping  was 
by  eight.  At  first,  the  8-group  divided  into  two  4-groups.  This 
disappeared,  and  the  8-group  became  pleasant  and  agreeable.  Time, 
.134  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  8-group  divided  easily 
into  two  4-groups.  The  span  was  too  long.  There  was  no  satisfac- 
tion in  the  8-group,  for  the  accent  did  not  come  soon  enough. 
Time,  .208  sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  This  was  distasteful. 
The  feeling  of  suspense  present  before  was  greater  still.  Time,  .268 
sec.  Every  eighth  was  accented.  The  suspense  was  still  greater, 
and  the  8-group  broke  up  into  two  4-groups.  Time,  .116  sec.  There 
was  no  accent.  This  rate,  which  had  given  before  an  agreeable 
8-group,  when  every  eighth  was  accented,  yielded  to  an  8-grouping. 
There  was  a  slight  tendency  for  the  8-group  to  divide  into  two 
4-groups,  the  first  of  which  was  more  emphatic. 

Subject  17.  Some  musical  talent  and  training.  Accustomed  to 
introspective  study. 

Time,  .3  sec.  In  the  first  place,  the  grouping  was  by  two,  and 
almost  immediately  and  without  effort  it  changed  to  a  4-group. 
When  each  click  was  attended  to  separately,  they  all  appeared  to 
be  of  the  same  intensity.  Suddenly  the  subject  began  to  group  by 
four.  He  felt  a  tendency  to  count  it  off  to  himself.  Sometimes  the 
4-group  appeared  as  two  2-groups.  Then  he  thought  there  was  an 
irregular  interval — a  difference  in  the  time  of  the  clicks.  He  then 
imagined  that  a  fainter  sound  was  heard  between  the  actual  clicks. 


58  BOLTON  : 

Each  click  was  grouped  with  the  fainter  sound  following  it,  and 
these  groups  grouped  by  two.  Breathing  seemed  to  accommodate 
itself  to  the  4- group;  inhalation  lasted  during  one  group  of  four 
and  exhalation  during  another.  When  every  third  was  accented 
and  time  .208  sec.,  the  subject  felt  a  strong  tendency  to  inhale  dur- 
ing one  group  and  exhale  during  another. 

Each  group  is  attended  with  the  feeling  of  having  completed  a 
member  of  the  rhythm.  The  groups  stand  out  as  unities — as  wholes 
— and  as  each  group  becomes  complete,  there  is  a  striving  for  the 
next.  The  subject  has  a  tendency  to  count  the  clicks  by  fours  or 
other  numbers.  When  he  attempts  to  suggest  a  3- group,  the  third 
click  seems  to  repeat  itself  thus:  1,  2,  3,  3,— 1,  2,  3,  3,— 1,  2,  3,  3. 
He  succeeded,  however,  in  getting  a  real  3-group  by  counting  and 
nodding  the  head  with  the  accented  click.  When  he  attempted  to 
group  by  five,  the  accents  seemed  to  crowd  along  until  it  brought 
six  into  the  group.  The  first  three  clicks  seemed  to  come  in  the 
time  of  two  and  the  rest  were  irregular.  When  he  succeeded  in  get- 
ting a  5-group,  it  was  accented  upon  the  second. 

Time,  .965  sec.  The  2-group  was  the  most  natural,  but  it  was 
imperfect.  Time,  1.615  sec.  The  subject  was  able  by  strong  effort 
to  group  by  two,  but  the  sounds  seemed  more  naturally  to  appear 
uniform. 

Subject  18.    No  musical  talent  and  no  interest  in  music. 

Time,  .352  sec.  This  was  a  very  pleasant  rate.  Other  rates 
seemed  either  too  slow  or  too  fast.  By  no  suggestion  could  any 
kind  of  grouping  of  the  sounds  be  effected.  The  subject  declared 
that  they  were  all  uniform  in  intensity. 

Subject  19.  Some  musical  talent  and  in  training  at  the  public 
school. 

Time,  .268  sec.  The  subject  likened  the  series  to  dropping  water. 
It  was  suggested  to  him  that  perhaps  some  sounds  were  louder  than 
others,  when  he  said  that  every  fourth  seemed  louder.  Again  it  was 
suggested  that  possibly  every  third  was  louder,  but  the  subject 
would  not  agree  to  it.  When  every  third  was  strongly  accented, 
the  grouping  was  by  three.  When  the  accent  was  dropped  out,  the 
subject  returned  to  a  4-group.  When  he  listened  to  the  sound  of 
the  chronograph,  which  was  making  a  double  3-rhythm,  he 
grouped  the  sounds  accordingly. 

Subject  20.    Some  musical  talent  and  good  training. 

Time,  .268  sec.  The  sound  was  likened  to  dropping  water.  It  was 
suggested  that  the  clicks  grouped  together  in  some  way,  and  the 
subject  replied  that  they  were  grouped  by  four.  Again  it  was  sug- 
gested that  some  other  grouping  was  possible.  This,  the  subject 
said,  was  by  three.  After  reflecting  and  counting  for  a  moment, 
the  grouping  was  thus:  1,  2,  3,  1—1,  2,  3,  1—1,  2,  3,  1.  The  first  and 
third  were  accented  in  the  4-group. 

Subject  21.    Physicist. 

Time,  .30  sec.  The  sound  suggested  the  pendulum.  A  loud  click 
corresponded  to  one  swing  and  a  soft  to  the  other.  He  visualized  a 
conical  pendulum,  which  struck  at  several  points  in  its  swing  and 
thus  grouped  the  sounds  by  other  numbers  than  two.  He  seemed  to 
attend  now  to  the  series  of  clicks  and  then  to  relax  and  attend 
again.  During  the  "strains  of  attention,"  he  might  grasp  three  or 
four  clicks.  A  feeling  of  relief  followed  each  strain  of  the  attention. 
All  the  muscles  of  the  body  seemed  to  point  toward  the  source  of 
the  sound.  They  alternately  contract  and  relax  with  the  successive 
strains  of  the  attention.  The  first  click  in  each  group  was  accented. 

Subject  22.    Some  musical  talent. 


RHYTHM.  59 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  clicks  were  grouped  by  four.  Time,  .78  sec. 
This  rate  was  too  slow  for  any  grouping.  It  did  not  even  suggest 
the  clock  tick.  Time,  .166  sec.  This  rate  was  too  fast  for  easy 
grouping  in  any  way. 

Subject  23. 

Time,  .268  sec.  The  prevailing  group  was  four.  It  was  difficult 
to  suggest  any  other.  The  sound  of  the  chronograph,  which  gave  a 
6-rhythm  compounded  of  two  3-rhythms,  was  scarcely  sufficient  to 
break  down  the  tendency  to  group  by  four.  The  subject  had 
worked  in  the  same  room  with  the  chronograph,  and  had  become 
more  accustomed  to  the  8-rhythm  than  to  any  other  which  the 
chronograph  made. 

Subject  24. 

Time,  .268  sec.  The  clicks  grouped  immediately  by  two.  There 
seemed  to  be  a  difference  in  quality.  When  every  fourth  was 
accented,  they  were  grouped  by  four.  A  longer  interval  preceded 
the  accented  click.  When  every  eighth  was  accented,  the  clicks 
were  grouped  by  eight  and  a  longer  interval  preceded  the  louder 
sound. 

Subject  25.    Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Subject  has  noticed  his  tendency  to  group  objects  and  sounds 
before  the  experiment.  Objects  passing  rapidly  before  the  eyes 
are  grouped  by  eight,  those  passing  slower,  by  four,  and  those 
passing  very  slowly,  by  two.  Time,  .78  sec.  Every  other  sound 
appeared  to  be  of  sharper  tone  than  the  rest.  The  sharper  toned 
click  grouped  with  a  weaker  and  came  first.  Time,  .115  sec.  He 
grouped  by  eight.  When  he  gave  attention  to  the  pulse,  he  seemed 
not  to  hear  the  clicks  coming  near  or  just  after  the  heart-beat. 
The  clicks  between  the  heart-beats  were  more  distinct.  No 
grouping  of  the  sounds  would  persist  long.  The  accented  sound 
in  the  group  generally  came  first,  but  it  might  come  anywhere  in 
the  group. 

Subject  26.     Some  musical  talent  and  training.     Laboratory  boy. 

Time,  .323  sec.  The  most  natural  form  of  grouping  was  by  two. 
The  first  was  accented.  When  he  suggested  a  3- group,  the  rate 
;seemed  to  be  slower,  and  then  the  clicks  seemed  to  be  of  the  same 
intensity.  When  every  third  was  accented,  the  accented  click 
oame  first  in  the  group,  and  was  preceded  by  a  longer  interval. 
In  whatever  position  an  accented  click  stood,  it  was  preceded  by  a 
longer  interval.  With  uniform  sounds  the  4- group  was  accented 
upon  the  first  and  third  ;  the  first  was  stronger  than  the  third. 

Subject  27.    Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .3  sec.  The  most  natural  form  of  grouping  was  by  two. 
The  first  was  accented.  He  was  able  to  suggest  groupings  by  three 
or  four.  The  first  sound  in  either  group  was  accented.  By  tapping 
with  five  fingers,  and  striking  much  harder  with  the  fifth  he  was 
able  to  suggest  a  5- group.  It  seemed  to  be  a  matter  of  the  imagi- 
nation largely  whether  there  was  a  rhythm.  When  he  thought  of 
a  clock  or  some  other  rhythmical  machine,  the  series  tended  to 
group  according  to  the  suggestion.  The  sound  was  most  naturally 
associated  with  dropping  water. 

Subject  28.    No  musical  talent. 

Time,  .536  sec.  It  was  possible  to  group  the  series  by  three,  four 
or  five.  The  4-group  was  most  natural.  From  early  childhood  the 
subject  has  observed  the  4-rhythm  in  the  puffing  of  the  locomotive 
especially,  and  in  later  years  the  same  rhythm  has  been  observed 
in  clocks,  metronome,  hammering,  walking,  and  in  all  auditory 
impressions  that  approach  a  regularity  in  sequence.  The  rhythm 
is  clearest  in  the  sound  of  the  locomotive.  The  first  and  third 


60  BOLTON  : 

sounds  in  the  group  are  accented  ;  the  first  is  generally  more 
strongly  accented  than  the  third.  When  the  sounds  of  the  loco- 
motive become  very  rapid  there  is  no  definite  grouping,  simply  a 
periodic  rise  and  fall  in  intensity.  Time,  .268  sec.  This  was 


especially  favorable  for  the  4-group,  and  the  3-group  could  not  be 

The  4-gro 
It  was  possible  to  suggest  a  2-group  by  striking  heavily  on  every 


easily  suggested.    Time,  .208  sec.    The  4-group  was  most  natural. 


other  sound.  The  grouping,  however,  was  very  monotonous.  Both 
the  3  and  the  5-group  were  very  difficult.  Time,  .268  sec.  Although 
the  3-group  was  difficult  at  this  rate  before,  it  could  be  easily  sug- 
gested this  time.  Time,  .17  sec.  The  clicks  were  grouped  by  four 
and  the  4-  groups  tended  to  group  by  two  with  the  pendulum-  swing 
movement.  If  the  grouping  was  held  down  to  a  plain  four,  it  be- 
came unpleasantly  monotonous.  Time,  .134  sec.  The  series  tended 
to  appear  in  the  form  of  a  periodic  rise  and  fall  in  intensity.  The 
periods  were  about  equal  to  the  time  of  an  8-group,  and  with  a  slight 
voluntary  effort  the  series  grouped  by  eight.  The  8-groups  tended 
to  group  by  two  with  the  pendulum-  swing  movement.  During  a 
subsequent  experiment  with  the  same  rate,  the  subject  felt  a  ten- 
sion in  the  eye  muscles  which  grouped  the  series  by  eight  ;  four 
sounds  occurred  during  the  upward  movement  and  four  during  the 
downward. 

Subject  29.     Some  musical  talent  and  training. 

Time,  .268  sec.  When  the  subject  thinks  of  a  clock  the  series 
groups  by  two,  but  when  he  thinks  of  hammering,  the  clicks 
appear  to  be  of  the  same  intensity.  He  could  suggest  a  3  or 
4-group,  but  the  2-group  was  most  natural.  Time,  .208  sec.  He 
finds  it  easy  to  count  almost  any  rhythm  as  far  as  nine.  The  longer 
rhythms  tend  to  divide  into  shorter  ones.  The  subject  found  it 
difficult  to  keep  from  thinking  of  a  clock  tick,  which  suggested  the 
2-group.  Time,  .17  sec.  The  subject  still  grouped  by  two  and 
thought  the  rate  seemed  to  be  faster  when  he  grouped  by  two  than 
when  he  suggested  other  groups. 

Subject  30.    No  musical  talent. 

Time,  .268  sec.  By  no  suggestion  was  it  possible  for  the  subject 
to  effect  any  kind  of  grouping  of  the  sounds.  It  appeared  as  a  dead 
monotonous  series,  with  which  he  could  not  avoid  the  association 
of  a  pile-driver. 

Many  other  persons  who  simply  came  in  as  visitors,  were  experi- 
mented upon  with  results  which  confirmed  the  foregoing  records. 
No  especial  account  was  taken  of  them.  More  than  fifty  persons 
in  all  were  experimented  upon,  and  only  two  failed  to  effect  some 
kind  of  grouping  in  the  clicks  which  they  heard.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  younger  and  less  educated  yielded  more  easily  and 
quickly  to  the  suggestion  of  a  rhythmical  grouping. 

The  first  point  in  the  preceding  records  to  which  attention 
is  called  is  the  rhythmical  grouping  of  the  sounds.  The 
grouping  was  the  same  in  every  case.  It  was  accomplished 
by  accenting  regularly  certain  sounds  more  than  others. 
The  weaker  or  less  accented  sounds  seem  to  run  together 
with  the  stronger,  and  to  form  organic  groups  which  are 
separated  from  one  another  by  intervals  which  are  apparently 
longer  than  the  interval  which  separates  the  individual  clicks. 
Such  rhythmical  grouping  has  been  observed  frequently  at 
other  times  by  many  persons.  Several  of  the  subjects  testify 


EHYTHM.  61 

to  have  known  of  their  tendency  to  group  the  puffs  of  the 
locomotive,  even  in  early  childhood,  and  they  have  taken 
great  delight  in  it.  With  us  this  habit  of  grouping  the  puffs 
of  the  locomotive  when  it  was  starting  slowly  or  pulling  up  a 
grade  became  so  strong,  even  in  early  childhood,  that  it  led 
to  all  kinds  of  speculation  as  to  the  cause.  The  puffs  are 
grouped  by  four.  The  first  and  third  are  accented,  the 
first  generally  stronger  than  the  third.  No  other  grouping 
ever  seemed  possible  until  it  was  found  in  the  experimental 
work  that  the  tendency  to  group  by  four  was  only  a  habit  or 
association.  The  puffs  of  a  locomotive  may  now  be  grouped 
by  two  or  three,  but  the  association  of  the  drive- wheel  making 
one  revolution  to  four  sounds  renders  any  other  form  of 
grouping  than  by  four  difficult.  When  the  engine  runs  very 
fast,  the  sounds  seem  to  rise  and  fall  in  intensity  at  regular 
intervals. 

A  kind  of  rhythm  is  also  observed  in  the  noise  of  mill- 
wheels.  The  winnowing  machine  and  feed  cutter,  such  as 
are  found  upon  many  farms,  produce  a  rhythmical  sound 
which  few  persons  fail  to  observe.  Long  association  in  early  ' 
childhood  with  such  rhythms  stamps  them  upon  the  mind  so 
firmly  that  they  become  a  mental  habit.  Children  either 
fancy  or  perceive  rhythms  in  many  sounds ;  they  indicate 
this  by  their  attempts  to  reproduce  the  sound  of  machinery 
or  of  locomotives.  Some  railroad  engineers  believe  their 
engines  sing  tunes.  The  same  engine  under  like  circum- 
stances always  sings  the  same  tune. 

Several  experimenters  have  also  observed  this  same  group- 
ing of  rhythmic  sounds.  In  the  work  undertaken  by 
Dietze1  in  Wundt's  laboratory  upon  the  Umfang  of  con- 
sciousness, this  rhythmical  grouping  of  the  sounds  of  the 
metronome  was  observed  and  employed  to  determine  the 
length  of  the  mental  span.  The  grouping  was  accomplished 
by  intensifying  voluntarily  certain  sounds  and  subordinating 
others  to  it.  By  grouping  the  sounds  first  by  eight  and  then 
the  groups  of  eight  by  five,  it  was  possible  to  grasp  forty 
sounds.  Wundt  says  it  is  impossible  to  restrain  this  group- 
ing absolutely.  It  may  be  confined  to  a  2-group,  beyond 
which  it  cannot  go  within  certain  limits.  Four  sec.  is  the  lower 
limit,  and  .11  sec.  is  the  upper  limit.  The  most  favorable 
rate  is  .2  to  .3  sec.  Wundt  refers  this  grouping  to  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  concept  on  the  wave  of  apperception.  As  we  shall 
see  later,  it!  is  possible  to  restrain  this  tendency  to  group 
sounds.  The  difficulty  was  with  Wundt' s  apparatus.  The 
two  sounds  heard  during  a  complete  swing  of  the  pendulum 

AWundt,    Physiologische  Psychologic,  Vol.  II.  p.  73. 


62  BOLTON : 

of  the  metronome  are  not  of  the  same  intensity  or  quality,, 
and  hence  the  impossibility  of  restraining  the  grouping  by  two. 

Angell  and  Pierce, L  in  their  experiments  upon  attention,, 
state  that  one  subject  noticed  a  rhythm  in  the  sounds  with 
which  he  felt  a  tendency  to  muscular  contraction — nodding  of 
the  head  and  beating  time  with  the  fingers. 

In  neither  of  these  experiments  could  the  experimenters  be 
sure  that  there  was  not  some  difference  in  the  sound  which 
would  suggest  a  rhythm.  The  importance  of  an  absolutely 
uniform  series  of  sounds  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon. 
A  difference  in  sounds  which  would  ordinarily  remain 
unnoticed,  is  sufficient  to  suggest  a  rhythm.  This  will  be 
seen  when  we  come  to  discuss  the  voluntary  changes  of  the 
grouping  and  the  ease  of  suggesting  such  a  change.  In  the 
present  experiments  the  greatest  precaution  was  used  against 
any  variation  in  the  sounds  that  would  suggest  or  impose  a 
grouping.  The  only  possible  source  of  such  a  variation 
would  come  from  a  difference  in  the  resistance  between  the 
mercury  and  platinum.  If  the  mercury  were  dirty  or  the 
platinum  points  were  not  sufficiently  immersed  to  form  a 
good  contact,  or  the  mercury  were  to  adhere  to  the  points  as 
they  were  withdrawn,  a  difference  in  the  intensity  of  the 
sound  might  be  heard.  The  mercury  was  carefully  cleaned 
every  few  days,  or  fresh  mercury  put  in.  The  platinum 
points  were  filed  smooth  and  kept  brushed.  Strong  elastics  were 
attached  to  each  key,  so  that  when  the  keys  were  released  there 
was  no  delay  about  reacting.  If  then  there  were  any  varia- 
tions, since  there  were  five  sets  of  keys,  it  ought  to  recur 
every  fifth  sound  ;  but  as  a  5-rhythm  was  always  found  very 
difficult,  and  a  2,  3  and  4- rhythm  easy,  we  have  strong 
ground  for  believing  that  any  variations  except  those  which 
were  intended  were  so  small  as  to  have  no  influence  upon  the 
rhythmical  grouping.  We  have,  then,  the  testimony  of  all  the 
subjects  that  the  clicks  seemed  uniform  in  intensity. 

Subject  2  always  heard  a  uniform  series  for  a  time  after  a 
change  of  rate,  or  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  experiment. 
His  tendency  to  group  was  so  strong  that  he  could  avoid  it 
only  by  imagining  some  one  pounding  in  the  distance,  or 
some  objective  thing  that  was  perfectly  uniform.  Sub- 
ject 3  did  not  feel  any  tendency  to  group  the  sounds  until 
after  he  had  tried  several  suggestions.  Subject  9,  taking  a 
critical  attitude,  was  inclined  to  believe  for  a  time  that  the 
clicks  were  all  of  the  same  intensity.  After  a  few  moments 
it  required  an  effort,  which  was  like  "  looking  long  into  the 


AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  PSYCHOLOGY,  Vol.  IV.  pp.  534  and  539. 


RHYTHM.  63 

future,'7  to  avoid  a  grouping.  "  I  find  no  rhythm,"  he  says, 
"  as  long  as  I  hold  my  breath  and  stick  to  it."  When  sub- 
ject 11  gave  close  and  critical  attention  to  the  sound,  there 
was  no  grouping.  In  order  to  get  a  notion  of  a  rhythmic 
series — one  of  uniform  intensity — subject  12  turned  his  atten- 
tion * '  backward  ' '  and  saw  a  series  of  images  to  which  he 
was  adding  one  all  the  time.  He  throws  his  attention  upon 
what  comes,  and  studies  the  nature  of  the  sounds  to  see  if  the 
timbre  remains  the  same.  Subject  1 7  says  that  when  each 
click  was  attended  to  separately,  they  all  appeared  to  be  of 
the  same  intensity.  He  said  he  experienced  no  such  difficulty 
in  avoiding  a  rhythm  as  the  statement  of  Wundt  had  led  him 
to  suppose.  Subject  25  could  group  the  sounds,  but  he  was 
more  inclined  not  to  do  so.  If  he  suggested  a  grouping,  it 
did  not  persist.  Subject  27  found  it  more  natural  to  associate 
the  sound  with  dripping  water.  Subject  29  made  the  series 
appear  uniform  when  he  thought  of  hammering.  Subjects  18 
and  30  could  not  effect  any  grouping  at  all.  Upon  this 
evidence  we  may  safely  rely  upon  having  secured  a  series  of 
impressions  that  was  uniform  for  sensation.  It  is  also  true 
that  though  the  rhythmical  grouping  of  a  series  of  uniform 
sounds  is  difficult  to  avoid,  this  tendency  may  be  restrained 
within  the  limits  spoken  of  by  Wundt.  Our  own  experience 
tallies  with  those  above.  When  the  attention  is  directed  to 
each  single  impression,  and  an  attempt  made  to  study  the 
timbre,  it  is  possible  to  restrain  the  rhythmical  grouping  of 
the  sounds*  But  when  the  series  is  attended  to  as  a  whole, 
this  grouping  takes  place  involuntarily. 

The  character  of  the  sound  employed  in  the  experiments  of 
Dietze  differed  greatly  from  that  used  in  these  experiments. 
The  click  of  the  telephone  is  about  as  simple  and  instantaneous 
a  sound  as  it  is  possible  to  produce.  The  plate  in  the 
telephone  vibrates  a  very  short  time.  For  that  reason  its 
chief  characteristic  is  intensity ;  it  does  not  persist  long 
enough  to  establish  its  pitch  and  timbre.  The  mind  has  very 
little  to  work  upon.  It  can  construct  variations  only  ia 
intensity,  for  which  reason  the  carrying  power  is  greatly 
reduced.  The  sounds  can  be  subordinated  with  respect  to 
intensity  only,  and  unless  great  intensive  variations  can  be 
made,  the  mind  will  lose  its  grasp,  and  the  grouping  break 
up  into  single  impressions.  This  phenomenon  was  observed 
several  times,  and  in  particular  by  subject  15.  The  sound  of 
the  metronome  which  Deitze  employed  is  full  and  rich  and 
has  greater  carrying  power.  Any  experiments  upon  the 
carrying  power  of  the  mind  must  take  into  consideration  the 
character  of  the  sound.  Dietze  was  able,  by  strong  voluntary 
effort,  to  carry  the  grouping  much  farther  than  any  subject  in 


64  BOLTON : 

this  experiment  was  able  to  do  with  the  clicks  of  the  tele- 
phone. The  explanation  is  to  be  found  partly  in  a  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sounds  and  partly  in  a  different  method. 
The  subject  in  these  experiments  was  requested  to  group  the 
sounds,  not  by  voluntary  effort,  but  only  so  far  as  it  was 
iound  easy  and  spontaneous.  There  was  no  attempt  to  force 
the  grouping  as  far  as  possible,  or  even  to  force  the  grouping 
at  all.  It  was  the  spontaneous  and  involuntary  grouping 
that  was  studied. 

In  a  study  like  this,  which  is  purely  introspective,  the 
experimenter  must  rely  upon  the  integrity  of  his  subjects. 
There  is  and  can  be  no  test  of  the  accuracy  or  truth  of  the 
results,  except  the  uniformity  which  they  show.  If,  however, 
each  subject  is  unaware  of  the  object  to  be  obtained  by  the 
experiment,  and  of  the  opinions  of  every  other  subject,  and 
renders  his  judgment  without  any  interest  in  the  results  or 
without  any  preconceived  notions  of  the  experiment,  the 
judgments  are  no  more  subject  to  error,  and  have  about 
the  same  value  as  judgments  in  psycho-physical  experi- 
ments. Certain  attitudes,  habits,  and  characteristics  of  mind 
do,  however,  affect  results  in  certain  ways  which  are  injurious 
to  the  experiment.  Some  attention  was  paid  to  the  attitude 
and  method  of  the  subjects  in  making  judgments.  A  few  words 
in  regard  to  this  may  not  be  out  of  place.  There  are  three 
classes  of  psychological  subjects.  The  first  includes  those 
persons  who  yield  immediately  to  any  suggestion  that  is 
offered.  This  attitude  results,  then,  from  a  social  practice. 
In  society,  people  do  not  wish  to  antagonize  others.  They 
instinctively  give  assent  to  any  opinion.  In  an  experimental 
investigation,  if  the  operator  will  just  give  the  slightest  hint 
of  his  theory  or  preference  they  will  add  the  weight  of  their 
opinions.  If  the  operator  leads  them  into  giving  an  opinion 
which  is  opposed  to  his  theory,  "  consistency  becomes  a 
jewel;"  they  stick  to  their  opinion  stoutly.  If  the  experi- 
ment shows  plainly  that  they  are  wrong  and  it  is  preposterous 
to  hold  such  a  view,  they  make  a  compromise  with  their 
former  position  and  try  to  excuse  themselves  for  having  been 
led  astray.  They  remain  respectfully  silent  afterward  and 
avoid,  if  possible,  giving  an  opinion.  If  they  are  forced  to 
make  a  judgment,  they  do  it  tentatively ;  they  are  not  sure. 
Of  a  number  of  possible  views  they  cannot  make  up  their 
minds  which  is  the  correct  one.  They  generally  hair- split 
until  they  find  out  someone's  opinion  and  then  agree  with  that. 

The  second  class  of  subjects  includes  those  who  take  a  mod- 
erately critical  attitude.  They  are  concerned  in  others7 
opinions  in  so  far  only  as  other  opinions  suggest  different 
points  of  view.  They  give  their  own  opinions  when  they 


RHYTHM.  65 

have  considered  all  the  phases  of  the  experiment  that  are  sug- 
gested to  them.  They  are  unconcerned  about  the  outcome  of 
the  experiment.  They  are  not  dogmatic  ;  they  might  have  a 
different  opinion  under  different  circumstances  or  with  further 
consideration.  In  the  light  of  the  evidence  before  them,  they 
hold  to  a  certain  view. 

The  third  class  includes  those  persons  who  are  excessively 
critical.  They  incline  always  to  an  opposite  view.  The 
experiment  is  not  conducted  properly  to  suit  them ;  they  are 
not  in  their  best  mood  for  judgment.  They  are  sure  to  take 
ground  against  some  one's  opinion.  If  they  cannot  get  any 
clue  to  others'  opinions,  they  are  doggedly  silent  or  quibble, 
and  refuse  to  answer  except  they  qualify  their  answers  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  answer  means  nothing.  This  class  of 
subjects  is  intellectually  dishonest.  If  they  are  compelled 
to  answer,  they  indulge  in  hair-splitting  differences  between 
their  opinions  and  those  of  some  others. 

When  the  experimenter  is  compelled  to  rely  entirely  upon 
the  judgment  of  his  subjects,  he  must  study  them  carefully 
and  use  the  opinions  of  certain  subjects  in  so  far  only  as  he 
finds  that  they  harmonize  with  the  general  results.  It  is  a 
fact  which  every  psychologist  must  understand  that  certain 
classes  of  persons  are  incapable  of  introspection.  The  first 
class  to  which  we  referred  are  unfitted,  because  of  habits  of 
too  free  judgment  and  of  always  agreeing  with  others.  The 
third  class  are  rendered  unfit  for  introspection  from  habits  of 
too  free  judgment  in  regard  to  matters  that  concern  themselves, 
and  from  an  unnatural  bias  toward  the  negative.  They  are 
icclined  to  make  too  much  of  their  individual  opinions.  In 
making  out  the  results,  the  investigator  cannot  rely  much  upon 
individual  opinion.  Where  there  is  almost  perfect  uniformity, 
the  results  may  be  given  in  tabulated  form ;  but  a  large  space 
must  be  given  to  merely  individual  opinion. 

We  have  then  to  inquire  first  in  regard  to  the  certainty  of  a 
rhythmical  grouping  of  a  series  of  absolutely  uniform  sounds. 
The  point  does  not  need  argument ;  the  preceding  records  show 
how  strong  is  this  tendency.  Only  three  out  of  fifty  or  more 
persons  tested  would  agree  that  it  was  easier  to  hear  each 
click  separately.  In  addition  to  the  records  given  above, 
several  subjects  were  asked  to  give  a  written  statement  of 
their  impressions  of  the  experiment.  In  one  case  definite 
questions  were  asked  in  writing. 

(A)  uAs  far  as  I  can  recall  my  impressions  at  the  different 
occasions  on  which  I  listened  to  the  series  of  sounds  from 
your  apparatus,  they  appeared  to  me  always  as  a  sequence  of 
groups  containing  the  same  number  of  elements.  The  excep- 
tional cases  where  the  impression  was  that  of  a  sequence  of 

6 


66  BOlTON  : 

single  sounds,  were  those  in  which  the  period  of  the  sequence 
was  at  its  longest.  For  any  given  rate  there  was  in  general 
one  certain  number  of  elements  of  which  the  groups  more 
naturally  consisted  than  any  other:  but  I  found,  too,  that  the 
sequence  took  on  instantly  the  character  of  almost  any  other 
grouping  that  was  suggested,  whether  by  word  or  sound.  As 
to  the  psychological  nature  of  this  phenomenon  of  grouping, 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  give  an  opinion.  I  found  the  effort  to 
determine  whether  or  no  there  were  any  recurrent  differences  of 
sensation  in  the  sequence  a  great  strain  upon  the  powers  of 
attention.  The  grouping  had  in  general  the  appearance  of 
being  forced  on  the  mind  by  the  sounds  rather  than  that  of 
being  imposed  on  them  by  it.7' 

(B)  "A  series  of  clicks  may  be  given  in  such  manner  that 
by  giving  the  closest  possible  attention   they   seem  to   be 
uniform   both  as  to  intensity  and  interval.     This  degree  of 
tension  (of  attention)  can,  however,  be  maintained  for  only  a 
few  seconds.     When  the  attention  is  moderate,  the  clicks  tend 
to  fall  into  rhythmic  groups,  the  number  of  clicks  falling  into  a 
group  varying  with  the  rate  of  the  clicks.    Slower  than  a  cer- 
tain rate  no  rhythm  is  felt.     With  more  rapid  rates  two  clicks 
form  a  group,  the  accent  falling  on  the  first  and  an  interval 
occurring  after  the  second.     Faster  still,  four  clicks  form  a 
group  with  accent,  primary  on  the  first  and  secondary  on  the 
third,  and  an  interval  after  the  fourth.     This  seems  a  very 
pleasing  rhythm  to  me,  more  so  than  any  other.    A  still  more 
rapid  rate  gives  eight  in  a  group.     This  becomes  visualized 
quite  strongly  in  my  case.     It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  me 
to  hold  the  series  of  clicks  out  of  some  of  these  rhythms. 
They  fall  into  one  or  the  other  types  (according  to  rate) 
almost  irresistibly.      At  some  rates  I  was   able  to   get  a 
3-rhythm,  accented  strongly  on  the  first. " 

(C)  "  With  regular  ticks  within  certain  limits,  I  do  not 
perceive  them  as  distinct  separate  ticks,  but  from  the  first  I 
group.  With  slower  rates,  the  grouping  is  two  by  two,  which 
passes  very  easily  into  four,   subdivided  into   two.     With 
faster  rates,  the  tendency  is  to  perceive  the  grouping  into 
fours,  divided  into  two,  or  to  perceive  the  grouping  into 
threes.     The  quicker  the  rate,  the  larger  the  number  of  ticks 
entering  into  the  groups  up  to  about  six.     Below  the  lower 
limit,  the  ticks  are  first  perceived  separately  with  a  tendency 
to  fall    into  twos,   this    tendency    decreasing    as   the    rate 
decreases.     Above  the  upper  limit,  the  grouping  becomes 
vague  and  the  tendency  is  to  perceive  the  ticks  as  separate 
and  individual.     In  general   the  grouping  can  be  changed 
within  certain  limits. " 


RHYTHM.  67 

"The  groupings  influence  one  another.  There  is  a'tendency 
to  become  habituated  to  a  grouping.  A  grouping  heard  in 
one  rate  is  likely  to  repeat  itself  in  a  subsequent  rate.  It  is 
difficult  to  be  perfectly  passive  when  one  knows  he  is  to  find 
a  rhythm." 

(D)  "It  seems  to  me  easier  to  group  the  clicks  unless  they 
are  very  slow ;  but  I  do  not  find  it  so  difficult  to  perceive  them 
singly  as  I  should  have  inferred  from  Wundt's  remarks  on 
Dietze's  experiments.  Having  now  tried  many  times  when 
the  grouping  was  strongly  present,  subjectively  (voluntarily)c 
or  objectively,  I  think  I  am  a  little  more  inclined  to  discover 
groupings.  It  seems  to  me  that  I  do  not  lengthen,  but  rather 
intensify  one  or  more  of  the  sounds.  Perhaps,  however,  the 
change  is  more  in  quality  than  in  intensity,  or  perhaps  an 
accompanying  impulse  of  the  diaphragm,  stress  in  the  men- 
tal counting,  etc.,  etc.  Possibly,  however,  I  do  also 
lengthen  the  stressed  sound  at  the  same  time;  but  the 
lengthening  is  not  so  clear  as  the  stress.  I  infer  from  my 
experience  as  a  subject  that  the  rates  from  1  or  2  per  sec.,  up 
to  6  or  8  per  sec. ,  are  best ;  probably  about  4  per  sec.  being 
the  best.  The  fast  rates  are  better  for  groupings  by  four,  the 
slower  for  groupings  by  two.  Three-groups,  5-groups  and 
higher  groups  do  not  occur  spontaneously  with  me,  though 
3-groups  are  not  hard  to  start  by  counting.  Perhaps  2-groups 
go  easiest  of  all  with  me.  There  is  a  sense  of  expectation  of 
'  hope  deferred J  when  the  rate  is  too  slow  —  or,  at  least,  a 
feeling  of  'too  slow,'  like  traveling  in  a  slow  train,  although 
you  have  plenty  of  time. 

"  This  probably  increases  with  the  length  of  the  group.  The 
span  of  the  respiratory  rhythm  is  exceeded,  and  instead  of 
being  able  to  tell  off  a  whole  foot  of  the  rhythm  with  one 
breath,  several  breaths  intervene  between  those  that  mark  the 
accented  sounds.  With  small  groups  and  rapid  rates  there  is 
a  feeling  of  hurry.  The  motion  is  too  quick  and  short.  There 
is  none  of  the  repose — the  swaying,  the  grace,  the  easy  fulfill- 
ment of  expectation  that  a  slower  rhythm  possesses." 

This  rhythmical  grouping  was  a  series  of  efforts  to  attend 
to  the  sound.  The  grouping  results  from  a  sequence  of  acts  1 
of  attention.  When  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  sensation, " 
it  lays  hold  upon  the  first  impression  with  great  force  and 
makes  it  the  sole  object  of  consciousness.  If  this  were  the 
only  sound,  the  attention  would  turn  to  something  else,  but 
as  succeeding  impressions  follow  before  the  first  wave  of 
attention  has  subsided,  they  are  seized  upon  with  less  force 
than  the  first  impression,  and  are  subordinated  to  it  in  differ- 
ent degrees  according  to  the  strength  of  the  apperceptive  act. 
Subsequent  waves  of  attention  follow  the  same  process  as  louj, 


68  BOLTON : 

as  the  will  directs  the  attention  to  the  phenomenon.  The 
attention  accommodates  itself  to  a  certain  number  of  impres- 
sions, which  fall  easily  within  the  period  of  a  wave,  providing 
there  is  no  objective  difference  in  the  impressions.  If  there 
is  a  regularly  recurrent  difference,  this  becomes  the  signal  for 
a  new  act  of  attention,  providing  only  that  the  span  does  not 
exceed  or  fall  much  under  the  normal  period  of  a  wave.  If 
this  recurrent  difference  follows  at  too  great  intervals,  the 
attention  breaks  up  the  span  in  two  portions,  the  one  more 
emphatic  than  the  other.  If  it  follows  at  too  small  intervals, 
these  periods  fall  together  into  group,  first  of  two  and  then  of 
larger  numbers.  The  too  great  interval  is  marked  by  a  feel- 
ing of  suspense,  and  the  too  short  interval  by  a  straining 
after  something  more. 

The  number  of  uniform  elements  which  may  enter  into  a 
member  of  the  sequence  is  not  determined  wholly  by  the  time 
interval  which  separates  them.  Previous  mental  habits  and 
associations  influence  the  number  of  elements  in  the  members 
of  the  sequence.  All  individuals  are  more  habituated  to  two 
and  its  multiples  than  they  are  to  three.  There  are  also  many 
associations  which  will  suggest  groupings  by  two  and  four. 
All  ordinary  muscular  movements  follow  a  rhythm  of  two. 
The  associations  of  four  are  far  more  frequent  than  those  of 
three.  For  this  reason  to  a  large  extent,  groups  of  two  and 
four  prevail.  Several  subjects  have  described  this  effort  of 
attention  in  a  manner  which  deserves  notice  and  which  shows 
very  well  the  nature  of  the  act. 

Subject  7,  speaking  of  his  grouping  by  eight,  says  he  is  not 
able  to  "roundup"  until  he  comes  to  eight.  There  was 
feeling  of  completeness  about  the  8-group  with  a  certain  rate. 
Subject  9  says  there  is  a  slight  feeling  of  muscle  tension  in  the 
ear,  sometimes  in  the  back  of  the  scalp.  He  attends,  relaxes, 
and  attends  again.  There  is  an  inner vation  of  the  muscles 
connected  with  attention.  Subject  12  describes  his  feeling 
about  the  grouping  as  a  tendency  "  to  go  back  "  when  he  has 
heard  three  or  four  clicks,  as  the  case  may  be.  This  is  a 
"  mouthful  " — a  unity,  and,  when  he  has  one,  he  seeks  to  get 
another.  Subject  11  describes  his  feeling  as  a  series  of  efforts 
of  attention.  He  grasps  and  grasps  again  Subject  17  says 
each  group  is  attended  with  a  feeling  of  having  completed  a 
member  of  the  rhythm.  The  groups  stand  out  as  unities — as 
wholes — and  as  each  group  becomes  complete,  there  is  a 
striving  for  the  next.  Subject  21:  "I  attend  now  to  the 
series  of  clicks,  then  relax  and  attend  again.  During  the 
strains  of  attention,  I  may  grasp  three  or  four  clicks.  A 
Reeling  of  relief  follows  each  strain  of  attention.  All  the  mus- 


RHYTHM.  69 

cles  of  the  body  seem  to  point  to  ward  the  source  of  the  sound. 
They  alternately  contract  and  relax  >" 

This  is  the  rhythm  in  the  attention  to  which  a  reference  was  J 
made  above.  The  view  taken,  then,  was  that  only  one  undi- 
vided state  of  consciousness  might  arise  during  each  pulse  or 
wave  of  attention,  and  that  the  number  of  objects  which  can  be 
grasped  in  that  state  must  form  an  organic  unity  or  be  pre- 
sented as  a  single  object — have  the  appearance  of  a  unit. 

A  given  number  of  auditory  impressions  within  certain 
time  limits,  when  presented  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  a 
kind  of  subordination  among  them  with  respect  either  to 
time,  intensity,  pitch  or  quality,  or  with  respect  to  any 
two  or  more  of  these  properties,  always  stand  as  a  unit  in 
consciousness.  They  form  an  organic  unity  which  is  the 
essential  condition  of  a  number  of  impressions  entering  into 
a  state  of  consciousness.  If  such  organic  unity  does  not  exist 
and  it  is  possible  to  make  it,  the  mind  imposes  such  an 
arrangement  upon  a  given  number  of  the  elements  that  they 
may  enter  into  a  state  of  consciousness.  The  essential  con- 
ditions of  forming  such  a  unity  among  sounds  is  a  regular 
temporal  sequence  within  limits  which  shall  be  named  here- 
after, and  perfect  uniformity  in  intensity,  pitch  and  quality. 
Eegular  variations  within  limits  with  respect  to  intensity, 
pitch  or  quality,  or  to  any  two,  or  to  all  of  these  together, 
will  effect  a  subordination  among  them  sufficient  to  constitute 
an  organic  unity.  There  is  a  temporal  limit  within  which 
these  variations  must  occur  in  order  to  form  such  a  unity. 

The  test  of  how  many  auditory  impressions  might  be 
grouped  together  was  the  ease  and  pleasure  which  the  subject 
found  in  doing  so.  If  he  were  compelled  to  keep  up  a  con- 
stant suggestion  of  a  particular  number  in  order  to  group  the 
clicks  so,  noaccount  was  taken  of  it.  If,  after  suggesting  a 
grouping,  it  should  persist  until  some  other  suggestion  was 
made,  the  rate  was  considered  favorable  for  that  form  of  group- 
ing. The  subjects  have  described  some  groupings  as  most 
natural,  easy  or  pleasurable,  and  others  difficult  or  displeas- 
ing. The  groupings  which  were  spoken  of  as  natural,  easy 
or  pleasurable,  are  gathered  together  in  the  following  table, 
with  the  time,  to  determine  what  rates  have  been  found  best 
adapted  to  the  different  forms  of  grouping. 

In  the  following  table  are  brought  together  the  judgments 
of  all  those  subjects  with  whom  extensive  observations  were 
made.  The  number  of  the  subject  is  given  in  the  first  column 
at  the  left  hand,  and  in  the  columns  to  the  right  are  given  the 
rates  in  thousandths  of  a  second,  at  which  a  certain  form  of 
grouping  was  found  pleasant  and  easy.  The  designations  at 
the  top  of  columns  1,  2,  5,  8,  10  and  13  are  sufficiently  clear. 


70  BOLTON  : 

The  others  require  further  explanation.  In  column  3  are  given 
those  rates  at  which  the  subjects  found  a  2-group  more  easy, 
but  there  was  a  straining  for  a  larger  group,  or  the  2-groups 
seemed  to  group  by  two.  The  rate  was  a  little  fast  for  a 
2-group,  and  yet  it  was  not  more  pleasant  to  group  by  four. 
In  the  same  way  certain  rates  were  found  at  which  a  3,  4,  6 
or  8 -group  was  easier  than  any  other,  but  it  was  a  little  too 
fast  for  simply  grouping  by  these  numbers,  and  hence  the 
groups  tended  to  group  by  two.  This  was  generally  spoken 
of  as  the  "  pendulum  -swing  movement."  Still  other  rates 
were  found  at  which  a  4,  6  or  8 -group  was  more  pleasant, 
and  yet  the  rate  was  too  slow,  and  the  group  tended  to  divide 
into  two^smaller  groups.  In  column  15  are  given  those  rates 
at  which  there  was  no  distinct  grouping — simply  a  periodic 
intensive  change  in.  the  series.  Rates  at  which  there  was  no 
appearance  of  a  group  are  given  in  column  16. 

Multiplying  the  average  rate  for  each  form  of  grouping  by 
the  number  of  clicks  in  a  group,  we  get  as  the  length  of  groups : 

Lower  limit  for  no  group,  1.581  sec.  Average  variation,  .29  sec. 
Average  length  of  2-groups,  1.590  "  .328  " 

u  «  it  3  a  ^  ggQ  ((  u  a  2M  " 

a  u  u  4  a  j'^28  «  «  «  ]()68  " 

"  "  "  6  "  1.014  "  "  "  .028  " 

«  u  u  g  «  !  160  «  «  u  Q25  a 

The  foregoing  table  shows  that  the  lower  limit  for  the 
rhythmical  grouping  of  sounds  is  near  1.58  sec.  Some  sub- 
jects are  able  at  times  to  group  sounds  that  are  separated  by 
this  interval,  but  as  a  general  rule  spontaneous  grouping  has 
ceased.  The  records  give  several  instances  where  the  sub- 
ject has  visualized  the  pendulum  with  this  rate,  but  he  had  a 
feeling  that  the  pendulum  reached  its  full  swing  before  he 
heard  the  click.  The  upper  limit  at  which  spontaneous 
rhythmical  grouping  ceases  cannot  be  far  from  .115  sec. 
Several  subjects  declared  their  inability  to  make  definite 
groups  at  a  rate  less  than  this.  Others  perceived  only  a 
periodic  rise  and  fall  in  the  intensity  of  the  sound  ;  there  was 
no  definite  grouping. 

Between  these  limits  there  was  some  form  of  rhythmical 
grouping  which  depended  in  a  large  measure  upon  the  rate. 
The  average  of  all  the  rates  at  which  a  grouping  by  two  was 
found  easy  and  natural  has  been  taken  and  multiplied  by  two 
to  find  the  average  length  in  time  for  the  2-groups.  The 
same  has  been  done  for  groups  of  three,  four,  six  and  eight. 
The  averages  for  groups  of  all  forms  are  found  not  to  differ 
greatly,  when  we  consider  certain  facts  which  influence  the 
length  of  the  group.  The  average  length  of  2  and  3- 
groups  is  somewhat  greater  than  the  average  for  groups  of 


Subject. 

,  J 

1 

I 

& 

2-Group.  » 

X 

js 

aS 

§§• 

o  2 

ciO 

4-Groups  tend  to 
Divide  into  two  •*• 
2-Groups.  1 

4-Groups.  »• 

6 

sS 
!§• 

O£ 
4o 

8-Groups  tend  to 
Divide  into  two;  -* 
4-Groups. 

8 

| 

9 

9 

6 

i 

|£ 

I! 

ooO 

10 

S, 

i 

a 
A 

11 

d 
fr 

|S 

92 

c4C5 

6-Groups  tend  to 
Divide  into  two  & 
3-Groups. 

13 

1 

! 

14 

d 

JB 

sS 

0  ft 
92 

«4o 

Periodic 
Intensive  £ 
Changes. 

16 

6 
& 

1 

1  152 

.670 

323 

167 

2 

1  140 
1000 
1  002 

263 

.263 

.230 
.323 
323 

.208 
208 

167 

.)    •   A  1 

.323 
.323 
303 

268 

.263 

4 

]  G60 

.500 
1.140 
1  072 

.760 
1.140 
1  072 

.646 

.500 
.230 
.323 

.170 

5 

.646 
.536 
.536 

.288 
.268 
.134 

.208 
.268 
'.323 

>  288 

.116 
.156 
.134 

208 

6 

7 

1  440 
1.660 

1  140 

1.440 

.300 
.780 
.353 
.780 
780 



.300 

.420 
.323 
.353 
.353 

.288 

300 

.167 
.156 
.288 
.134 

.134 

:.i83 

.208 

.... 

.... 





.156 
.166 

.137 

.156 

.... 

8 

1  440 

.300 

167 

137 

156 

g 

780 

.268 

.300 

.134 

.208 

10 

1.440 
1  440 

.760 
.540 

450 

.134 

268 

.268 
134 

.166 
.116 
.116 

134 

268 

134 

.156 

11 

12 

1  660 

.268 
.780 
1.67 

1  56 





.300 
.300 
.268 
.500 
.250 
.268 
.323 
.156 

.116 

.268 
.167 
.263 
.115 

156 

.137 
.115 
.156 

116 

.134 

.353 

.156 

.156 

.208 
115 



.116 
.115 

.... 

13 

1.440 

.760 
285 

288 

.300 
285 

340 

.115 

14 

.352 
.288 
.268 

.352 
.352 
.208 

.115 

.780 
.969 

15 
16 

1.440 





.285 
.300 
'.268 
.134 
156 

115 

.285 

.134 
.116 

.116 

.... 

.268 



.... 



.116 

.... 

17 

1.720 
1.615 

.323 
.789 

.352 

.624 

.263 
.167 
.352 

167 

.167 

.624 

.167 

.192 

19 
20 

.965 
.969 
.849 
.268 

.789 

.307 
.307 
.500 

.268 

.208 

.501 

.789 

.208 

22 
28 

.780 
1.938 

1.672 
.069 
.700 
.969 
1.072 



.536 

.300 
.268 
.208 
.323 
.323 
.208 
.208 
.268 
.536 

.167 
.170 

.134 

.167 
.116 
.134 

.134 
.116 

.323 
.323 





.156 
.156 

.137 

.134 
.115 

.166 

Average 

1.681 

.795 

.526 

.542 

.307 

.18$ 

.134 

.145 

.125 

.460 

.149 

.161 

.169 

.137 

.127 

Avuraze 
Variation 

.19 

.328 

.2 

04 

.068 

.( 

143 

.025 

.009 

.204 

.05 

8 

.028 

72  BOLTON  : 

six  and  eight.  The  explanation  for  this  is  to  be  sought  in 
the  fact  that  persons  are  more  accustomed  to  rhythms  of  two 
and  four  than  to  the  longer  rhythms. 

The  average  variation  for  2  and  3 -groups  is  greater 
than  for  groups  of  four,  six  and  eight.  The  associations  with 
the  2-rhythm  are  far  greater  than  with  any  other,  and  these 
associations  tend  to  suggest  the  2-group  where  it  would 
not  otherwise  occur  spontaneously.  Long  experience  with 
clocks  that  vary  greatly  in  their  rates  of  ticking  has  much  to 
do  with  the  wide  limits  within  which  the  2-rhythm  is  possible. 
The  3-group  is  a  more  rare  form  of  grouping,  and  only  a  few 
subjects  succeeded  in  suggesting  it  easily.  For  that  reason 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  average  time  of  the  3-group 
should  differ  greatly  from  the  others.  Then  the  power  to 
carry  one  or  two  impressions  in  the  mind  is  greater,  and  they 
can  be  held  longer.  The  actual  span  for  two  clicks  in  a  given 
time  is  only  a  little  more  than  half  the  span  for  eight  clicks 
in  the  same  time.  In  the  first  case  almost  half  the  interval 
is  a  pause  between  the  groups,  and  in  the  second  the  pause 
takes  up  less  than  one- eighth  of  the  interval. 

There  are  several  facts,  as  the  records  have  shown,  that 
tend  to  make  the  length  of  groups  vary.  Several  subjects 
were  predisposed  to  groupings  by  four.  This  number  has  had 
a  peculiar  charm  for  one  from  early  boyhood.  It  was  his  num- 
ber in  school,  and  ever  since,  objects  that  were  grouped  by 
four,  or  that  could  be  grouped  by  four,  have  had  an  especial 
attraction  for  him.  Four  impressions,  of  whatever  sort, 
always  arrest  his  attention.  For  this  reason  he  attempted  to 
group  all  rates  by  four,  even  though  it  required  strong  effort 
to  do  so.  With  two  exceptions,  all  subjects  had  the  prevail- 
ing tendency  to  group  by  four.  A  second  fact,  which  in- 
fluenced probably  the  grouping  to  some  extent,  was  that  when 
a  subject  found  it  easy  to  group  a  given  rate  by  four  he 
became  somewhat  habituated  to  a  4-grouping,  and  was  in- 
clined to  group  the  succeeding  rates  by  four,  unless  they 
differed  greatly.  If  a  very  slow  rate  followed  a  faster  one, 
which  had  been  grouped  by  three  or  four,  the  subject  tended 
to  imagine  intermediate  clicks  between  the  actual  clicks,  and 
still  to  group  by  three  or  four,  as  the  case  might  be.  (  See 
the  records  of  subjects  1,  6,  12,  13  and  17.)  Taking  all  the 
forms  of  grouping  together,  the  average  time  is  taken  to  indi- 
cate the  normal  period  of  a  wave  of  the  attention  which  does 
not  exceed  greatly  one  second.  A  spontaneous  effort  of  the 
attention,  or  with  Wundt  a  wave  of  apperception,  endures 
about  a  second  or  more.  We  do  not,  however,  hold  that 
there  is  an  absolute  psychical  constant,  even  for  the  individual. 
No  other  fact  is  more  certain  than  that  the  condition  of  the 


RHYTHM.  73 

subject,  as  regards  fatigue  and  previous  engagement,  has 
much  to  do  with  the  rate  at  which  a  certain  group  is  found 
pleasant  and  agreeable.  (See  the  records  of  subjects  1  and  3. ) 

Before  leaving  the  subject,  let  us  call  attention  to  the 
averages  for  groupings  that  are  intermediate  between  two 
and  four,  four  and  eight,  and  three  and  six.  The  averages 
for  the  rates  at  which  these  groups  were  observed  lie  between 
the  average  rates  for  the  groups  between  which  they  stand. 

A  further  method  of  testing  the  normal  length  of  a  sponta- 
neous effort  of  attention  was  sought  in  this  way.  An  accented 
sound  every  sixth  or  eighth  was  introduced  into  the  series, 
and  a  number  of  different  rates  were  tried,  until  one  was 
found  at  which  the  group  seemed  most  pleasing  and  natural. 
If  the  rate  was  too  slow  for  easy  grouping,  the  subject  per- 
ceived a  feeling  of  suspense.  A  slower  rate  still,  caused  the 
group  to  divide  into  two  parts,  or  at  least  the  subject  felt  a 
tendency  to  divide  the  group.  A  still  slower  rate  generally 
caused  the  long  group  to  disappear  entirely,  giving  place  to 
a  number  of  small  groups  which  were  equal  to  the  long  one. 
If  the  rate  were  too  fast  for  easy  grouping  by  six  or  eight, 
the  groups  tended  to  group  by  two  with  a  kind  of  pendulum- 
swing  or  wave-like  movement.  Before  trying  a  subject  upon 
an  accented  series  of  six  or  eight,  he  was  given  a  number  of 
rates  with  uniform  clicks,  beginning  with  a  slow  rate.  The 
purpose  was  to  determine  to  how  great  an  extent  the  form  of 
grouping  changed  with  different  rates,  when  they  were  given 
in  close  succession.  The  results  of  the  experiment  with  a 
series  of  uniform  rates  are  given  in  the  first  part  of  the  fol- 
lowing table.  The  results  of  the  experiment  when  every  sixth 
click  was  accented  are  given  in  the  second  part,  and  when 
every  eighth  click  was  accented,  in  the  third  part : 


UNACCENTED  SERIES,  PART  I. 


Subject  7. 

.323 

.263 

.208 

.167 

.1ST 

(.268) 
4  -group. 

Tends  slightly 
to  8  -group. 

4-group. 

Strongly 
tends  to  8. 

8  -group. 
Pleasant. 

Groups  not 
separated. 
Confused 
feeling. 

More 
confused 
feeling. 
Accented 
double 

6-group. 

Subject  16. 

2-  group. 

4-group. 

6  -group. 

6  -group. 

Not  so  easy  as 

Groups  by 

with  the 

two. 

'ollowing  rate 

Subject   3. 

3  -group. 

Double 
3-  group. 

3-groups. 
Groups  by 
two. 

Subject    4. 

.268 

.208 

.17 

.134 

.116 

4  -group. 
Pleasant. 

4-group. 

Confused. 

4-group. 

4-group. 
Groups  by 
two. 

Subject  10. 

4  -group. 

.156 

8  -group. 

Pleasanc. 

6  -group. 

Pleasant. 

Pleasant. 

Subject  13. 

2-  group. 

Groups  rise 

4-group. 

4-group. 
Groups  rise 

8  -group. 
Groups  by 

and  fall. 

and  fall  by 

two. 

two. 

Subject  16. 

2  or 

2  or 

3  or 

8  -group. 

4  -group. 

4-group. 

4-group. 

Divides  into 
two  4-groups. 

Subject    9. 

4-  group. 

Tends  slightly 
to  double 

4-group. 

Strongly 
towards  8. 

8  -group. 

Divides  into 
two  4-groups. 

4-group. 

Subject  17. 

8  -group. 

8  -group. 

Illusive. 

Subject   5. 

.78 

.353 

Wavers 

.183 

.156 

2  -group. 

4-group. 

between 

8  -group. 

8  -group. 

4  and 

8  -group. 

ACCENTED  6 -GROUP,  PART  II. 


.323 

.263 

.208 

.167 

.137 

Subject    6. 

4-group. 
In  spite  of 
accent. 

6-group. 

Suspense 
tends  to 
3-group. 

6-group. 

Difficult. 

6-group. 
Pleasant. 

6-group. 
Groups  by 
two. 

Subject  11. 

6-group. 
Tends  to  a 
4-group. 

6-group. 
Pleasant. 

6-group. 
Groups  by 
two. 

Subject  16. 

6  -group. 
Two  3-groups. 
Span  disagree- 
ably long. 

6-group. 
Divides  into 
two  3-groups. 

6-group. 
Pleasant. 
Pend«lum- 
swing 
movement. 

BHYTHM. 

ACCENTED  8 -GROUPS,  PABT  III. 


75 


Subject    4. 

.268 
4  -group. 

.208 

.17 
4  -group. 

.134 
Two 
4-groups. 

.116 
8-group. 

Subject  10. 

4-  group. 

8  -group. 
Requires 
effort. 

8-group. 

Not 
animating. 

8-group. 

Harmonious. 

Subject  11. 

4  -group. 

Accents 
disturbing. 

8  -group. 

Accents 
disturbing. 

8-group. 

Not  pleasant. 

8-group. 
Pleasant. 

Subject  13. 

8  -group. 

Not  complete. 
Two  4  -groups. 

8-group. 

Divides  into 
two  4-groups. 

8-group. 
Pleasant. 

8  -group. 
Groups  by 
two. 

Subject^. 

8  -group. 
Really 
4  -#roups. 
Great 
suspense  for 
8  -group. 

8  -group. 

feeling  of 
suspense. 

8-group. 

Divides  into 
two  4-groups. 
Span  too 
long. 

8-group. 
Pleasant. 

With  the  unaccented  series,  the  6-group  was  found  natural 
twice  near  the  rate  .167  sec.  When  every  sixth  sound  was 
accented,  the  most  pleasant  rate  for  the  6-group  was  .167  sec. 
At  the  rate  .137,  the  6-groups  group  by  two.  At  the  rate 
.208  sec.,  they  were  difficult  to  grasp.  At  slower  rates,  there 
was  a  feeling  of  suspense,  or  the  group  tended  to  divide  into 
two  3-groups,  or  the  subject  was  more  inclined  to  group  by 
four  in  spite  of  the  accent.  According  to  this,  the  6-group  is 
found  most  natural  and  pleasant  at  the  rate  .167  sec.  By 
multiplying  this  by  six,  we  will  get  as  the  time  limit  for  the 
6-group  1.002  sec. 

With  uniform  series,  the  8-group  was  found  most  natural 
and  pleasant,  once  at  the  rate  .208  sec.,  once  at  the  rate  .134 
sec.  and  twice  at  the  rate  .116.  When  every  eighth  was 
accented,  the  8-group  was  found  most  pleasant  at  the  rates 
.134  and  .116  sec.  The  average  rate  for  all  is  .130  sec., 
which,  when  multiplied  by  eight,  gives  1.04  sec.,  the  time 
limit  for  the  8-group.  The  difference  between  this  and  the 
time  for  the  6-group  is  very  small,  and  at  the  same  time  they 
agree  very  well  with  the  times  for  the  same  groups  in  the  pre- 
ceding table.  The  general  fact  of  certain  rates  being  better 
adapted  to  certain  forms  of  grouping  is  pretty  well  established. 
This  adaptation  of  a  particular  form  of  grouping  to  a  certain 
rate  depends  upon  the  fact  that  the  length  of  the  group  cor- 
responds to  the  normal  period  of  a  wave  of  attention.  The 
lack  of  adaptation  results  from  cutting  short  the  normal  wave. 
For  a  fuller  account  of  the  different  states  of  feeling  arising 


76  BOLTON  : 

with  different  rates  for  a  certain  group,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  records  of  the  experiments  upon  subjects  10,  11,  13 
and  16. 

The  conscious  state  accompanying  each  wave  of  attention 
grasps  together  or  unifies  all  the  impressions  that  fall  within 
the  temporal  period  of  a  wave.  As  the  result  of  a  series  of 
attentive  efforts,  a  series  of  auditory  impressions  takes  the 
form  of  a  sequence  of  groups.  This  rhythmical  grouping  is 
due  to  the  unifying  activity  of  the  mind  ;  it  is  an  attempt  to 
conceive  a  series  of  sounds  in  a  simpler  form.  When  the 
mind  acts  upon  a  continuous  series  of  auditory  impressions, 
it  groups  all  the  impressions  that  fall  within  the  period  of  a 
wave  of  attention,  and  conceives  them  as  a  single  impression 
,  or  a  unity.  Each  succeeding  wave  groups  a  like  number,  so 
that  the  series  is  conceived  in  the  form  of  groups.  If  the 
single  impressions  are  separated  by  a  greater  time  interval 
than  the  normal  period  of  a  wave  of  attention,  each  impression 
stands  alone  as  the  sole  object  of  consciousness.  But  what 
becomes  of  the  series  when  the  rate  is  too  fast  for  rhythmical 
grouping  ?  A  partial  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  clicks  show  a  regular  periodic  rise  and  fall  in  intensity. 
There  was  no  separation  among  the  groups ;  no  definite 
number  of  impressions  constituted  the  group.  The  view  to 
which  least  objection  can  be  offered,  but  which  is  unsupported 
at  the  same  time  by  any  positive  evidence,  is  that  when  the 
sounds  become  too  rapid  to  find  expression  in  muscular  con- 
tractions of  any  kind,  they  can  be  no  longer  separated  from 
one  another  as  simple  impressions. 

The  most  rapid  rate1  of  voluntary  control  is  about  ten  per 
second.  This  periodic  rise  and  fall  in  the  intensity  of  the 
clicks  simply  marks  the  waxing  and  waning  of  the  attention. 
The  changing  intensity  of  the  sounds  indicates  the  changing 
degrees  of  clearness  in  the  conscious  state.  If  the  clicks  are 
separated  by  more  than  one- tenth  of  a  second,  the  groups  are 
separated  by  an  interval ;  at  least,  there  is  the  feeling  of  an 
interval.  Below  this  limit  of  one-tenth  of  a  second,  the  clicks 
preserve  their  individual  character.  They  do  not  fall  suffi- 
ciently near  together  to  appear  continuous.  They  preserve 
their  temporal  succession,  and  as  before  appear  in  different 
strengths  according  to  the  degree  of  clearness  in  the  conscious 
activity.  The  conscious  state,  which  seems  to  ride  upon  the 
crest  of  the  wave — that  is,  appear  when  the  attentive  effort  is  at 
its  strongest — fades  gradually  and  conceives  the  last  elements 
in  the  group  with  less  clearness  than  the  first,  and  with  the 
coming  of  a  new  wave  of  attention,  the  first  impression  is  laid 

1  u  Some  Influences  which  Affect  the  Rapidity  of  Voluntary  Move- 
ments." F.  B.  Dresslar.  AM.  JOUR.  OF  PSYCHOL.  Vol.  4,  p.  516. 


RHYTHM.  77 

hold  upon  with  great  force,  and  appears  stronger  in  contrast 
with  the  last  in  the  preceding  group. 

This  rhythm  in  the  attention,  and  hence  in  conscious  actir- 
ity,  finds  its  counterpart  in  the  activity  of  the  nerve  cell, 
which  we  have  seen  reason  for  believing  was  a  series  of  explo- 
sions— an  alternation  of  periods  of  activity  and  periods  of 
repose. 

The  subject  invites  speculation,  but  we  forbear  except  to 
offer  the  further  supposition  that  with  rates  slower  than  ten 
per  second,  the  interval  or  pause  between  the  rhythmical 
groups  marks  a  period  of  perfect  quietude  in  the  cell.  When 
the  rate  reaches  ten  a  second  or  more,  there  may  still  be  a 
period  of  absolute  inactivity,  but  no  less  interval  than  a  tenth 
of  a  second  can  cause  a  real  break  in  the  conscious  state  or 
no  less  interval  becomes  an  " object  of  consciousness.7'  The 
change  from  one  state  of  consciousness  to  another  is  repre- 
sented by  the  reversal  of  a  muscular  movement.  If  between 
two  impressions  there  is  not  sufficient  time  or  time  equal  to 
the  reversal  of  motion  in  a  member,  there  is  no  consciousness 
of  an  interval  between  the  impressions.  The  thought  of  the 
interval  is  a  deduction  and  not  a  sensation  or  conscious  fact 
—a  fact  revealed  by  the  immediate  conscious  state  itself. 
The  conscious  state  disappears  when  the  activity  in  the  cell 
ceases  ;  and  when  the  will  directs  the  attention  to  the  series  of 
impressions,  the  conscious  state  tends  to  disappear  when  it 
has  effected  all  the  subordinations  that  are  possible  among  the 
impressions  that  fall  easily  within  the  normal  period  of  a 
wave  of  attention. 

Another  phenomenon,  which  was  observed  by  several  sub- 
jects and  by  the  experimenter  at  different  times,  was  the 
apparent  slowing  up  of  the  rate.  The  feeling  was  one  of 
extreme  suspense,  and  was  described  as  ' '  awful ' '  and 
"dreadful."  There  was  no  apparent  regularity  with  which 
the  slowing  up  occurred  and  no  definite  time  that  the  feeling 
lasted.  The  only  fact  which  was  observed  concerning  it  was 
when  the  attention  was  diverted,  the  feeling  disappeared. 
Several  suppositions  occur  to  us  as  explanations,  but  none  ol 
them  seems  to  be  completely  satisfactory.  It  appears  to  be 
more  in  the  nature  of  fatigue,  but  it  is  not  clear  why  the 
impression  should  seem  to  be  separated  by  longer  intervals. 
The  general  fact,  however,  of  time  passing  more  slowly,  when 
one  is  suffering  from  fatigue,  has  been  observed  frequently.  A 
more  probable  supposition  is  that  it  indicates  a  kind  of 
rhythm  in  the  voluntary  effort  which  directs  the  attention  to 
the  source  of  the  sound. 

We  have  now  to  ask  what  is  the  inherent  nature  of  a 
rhythmical  group,  or  what  is  meant  by  a  unity  among 


78  BOLTON  : 

a  mnmber  of  auditory  impressions.  What  relation  must 
the  impressions  bear  to  one  another  that  they  may  be 
grouped  together  or  grasped  by  a  single  act  of  apperception! 
How  may  a  number  of  impressions  become  the  object  of  a  single 
state  of  consciousness?  With  Plato,  we  ask  how  the  many 
become  the  one,  or  with  Kant,  how  the  mind  makes  a  unity 
out  of  a  manifold.  Upon  the  basis  of  this  study,  we  can  hope 
to  answer  the  question  with  regard  to  auditory  impressions 
in  a  sequence.  The  question  has  already  been  answered  for 
simultaneous  sounds — musical  tones — in  the  laws  of  harmony. 
The  general  principle  as  laid  down  in  the  treatment  of  poetry 
was  that  by  coordinating  and  subordinating  the  elements  to 
one  another,  unities  were  effected  among  them.  The  same 
principle  holds  good  here. 

1  From  the  nature  of  the  apparatus,  only  changes  in  the 
I  intensity  of  the  clicks  could  be  effected.  For  this  reason  the 
subordinations  and  coordinations  among  the  sounds  must  be 
accomplished  through  different  intensities.  Two  methods  for 
determining  the  relations  of  the  sounds  in  a  group  with 
respect  to  their  intensities  were  employed.  By  the  first  each 
subject  was  asked  how  he  effected  a  grouping  in  a  series  of 
sounds  which  were  of  uniform  intensity,  and,  if  by  accent, 
what  sounds  in  the  groups  were  accented.  By  the  second 
method,  the  subject  was  given  a  series  of  sets  of  sounds  of 
different  intensities,  which  recurred  always  in  the  same  order, 
and  he  was  asked  to  point  out  where  the  series  was  grouped 
—the  position  of  the  strong  and  weak  sounds  in  the  group. 
In  this  way  we  were  able  to  determine  what  was  the  most 
natural  order  in  which  the  different  intensities  occurred  in 
the  group. 

By  the  first  method,  it  was  determined  that : 

The  first  sound  in  the  2-group  was  accented.  It  was  possi- 
ble by  objective  suggestion  of  tapping,  or  counting,  or  by 
Toluntary  effort,  to  accent  the  last  sound,  but  no  subject 
would  agree  that  this  was  the  natural  accent. 

The  first  sound  in  the  3-group  was  strongly  accented  and 
the  second  slightly.  Occasionally  a  subject  found  it  easier 
to  accent  the  second  more  strongly  than  the  first,  but 
this  did  not  seem  to  be  the  natural  way  of  accenting  the 
group.  It  was  possible  by  voluntary  effort,  or  objective  sug- 
gestion, to  change  the  position  of  the  accent.  Very  few  sub- 
jects found  it  easy  to  group  by  three,  and  it  usually  required 
a  strong  suggestion  to  start  the  group. 

The  4- group  was  very  generally  accented  upon  the  first  and 
third  sounds ;  the  first  was  stronger  than  the  third.  There 
was,  however,  some  difference  of  opinion.  Several  subjects 
found  it  easy  and  natural  to  accent  the  second  and  fourth,  and 


RHYTHM.  79 

subject  15  was  more  inclined  to  this  form  of  accent  than  to 
the  other.  Sometimes  there  was  only  a  single  click  accented, 
and  this  was  very  generally  the  first.  The  accents  could  be 
changed  voluntarily.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the  records  of 
subjects  1,  2,  6,  7,  9,  10,  11,  13,  15,  16,  17,  20. 

Most  subjects  preferred  a  grouping  by  four  to  one  by  three. 
When  the  attempt  was  made  to  suggest  a  3-group  by  counting 
three,  they  felt  an  over-powering  tendency  to  count  one  or 
three  a  second  time.  Thus:  1,  2,  3,  1—1,  2,  3,  1—1,  2,  3,  1 
—or  1,  2,  3,  3  —  1,  2,  3,  3  —  1,  2,  3,  3.  The  former  was  the 
more  common.  Subjects  1,  4,  7,  11,  12,  13,  15,  17  and  20 
mentioned  this  phenomenon. 

The  5-group  was  very  difficult  to  suggest  and  maintain. 
Most  subjects  declared  their  inability  to  get  such  a  grouping. 
Subject  11  said  that  an  extra  click  would  attach  itself  to  the 
group  and  '  'pull  it  over' '  to  a  6-group.  Subject  17  mentioned  a 
similar  phenomenon.  In  counting  a  5-group,  it  was  found 
easy  to  emphasize  the  first  and  third  or  the  first  and  the 
fourth.  This  gave  to  the  5-group  the  appearance  of  being 
compounded  of  a  2-group  and  a  3-group.  Subjects  10,  11,  12, 
15,  16  and  17  make  observations  on  their  attempts  to  suggest  a 
5-group. 

The  6  and  8 -groups  were  generally  compounded  of  smaller 
groups  of  two,  three  or  four.  The  6-group  was  composed  of 
two  3-groups  or  sometimes  three  2-groups.  The  first  group 
in  the  6-group  was  more  emphatic  or  was  accented.  The 
8-group  was  composed  of  two  4-groups  or  sometimes  four 
2-groups.  Subject  13  thought  that  the  intensities  of  the 
sounds  in  the  8-group  decreased  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end. 

Higher  grouping  of  these  groups  was  possible  to  some 
extent.  The  most  common  form  was  to  group  by  two.  This 
was  spoken  of  as  the  pendulum- swing  movement.  In  this  case, 
the  first  group  was  always  accented.  Subjects  1,  10,  12,  13, 
15  and  16  make  observations  upon  their  attempts  to  group  2 
and  3-groups.  The  record  of  subject  16  is  especially  impor- 
tant. Several  were  unable  to  group  4-groups  beyond  two,  on 
account  of  their  inability  to  keep  the  accents  clear.  In  general 
all  subjects  made  a  kind  of  interval  between  the  groups.  In  6 
and  8-groups,  which  were  compounded,  a  short  interval  fol- 
lowed each  smaller  group  and  a  longer  interval  followed  the 
whole  group  of  six  or  eight. 

Various  methods  of  suggesting  a  grouping  were  employed. 
The  most  frequent  method  was  by  counting  or  beating  time 
with  the  fingers.  Subject  17  says:  " Subjective  counting  is 
most  effective,  or  this  assisted  by  respiratory  stresses  and 
probably  other  muscular  movements."  The  associations 


SO  BOLTON  : 

which  the  sound  brought  up,  very  frequently  suggested  a  form 
of  grouping.  The  clock  (various  kinds),  pendulum,  locomo- 
tive, conical  pendulum  and  revolving  wheel,  making  a  certain 
number  of  sounds  during  a  revolution,  are  most  frequently 
mentioned  as  influencing  the  form  of  grouping.  The  operator 
frequently  directed  the  attention  of  the  subjects  to  respiration, 
or  asked  them  to  feel  the  pulse.  Most  of  the  subjects  incline 
to  the  view  that  respiration  accommodated  itself  to  the  form 
of  grouping  that  was  found  most  natural  with  the  rate  to 
which  they  were  listening.  Inhalation  and  exhalation  each 
lasted  during  the  time  of  a  4-group.  In  this  way  a  kind  of 
higher  grouping  was  accomplished,  for  the  clicks  heard  dur- 
ing inspiration  were  more  intense.  When  the  rate  was  slow 
both  inspiration  and  expiration  were  accommodated  to  the 
time  of  one  click. 

With  fast  rates,  the  pulse  acted  as  a  suggestion.  All  the 
clicks  falling  between  two  heart- beats  were  grouped  together, 
the  click  coming  nearest  in  time  to  the  heart- beat  being 
accented.  Subjects  2,  4,  9,  10,  11,  13,  15,  17  and  25  make 
observations  upon  this  subject. 

When  the  subjects  were  allowed  to  hear  the  sound  of  the 
chronograph,  which  was  distinctly  rhythmical,  no  other 
grouping  was  possible.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the  records 
of  subjects  2,  3,  9,  11,  16,  19  and  23. 

This  general  conclusion  seems  to  be  warranted  :  In  the 
presence  of  any  fixed  rhythm  within  limits,  or  of  objective 
suggestion,  the  series  was  grouped  according  to  the  sugges- 
tion, and  it  was  found  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  suggest 
any  other  grouping.  The  grouping  would  follow  the  stronger 
suggestion. 

Certain  rates  were  more  favorable  than  others  for  voluntary 
changes  of  the  forms  of  grouping.  Subjects  4,  6,  13  and  15 
mention  these  rates  respectively  as  especially  favorable  for 
voluntary  changes  :  .323  sec.,  .353  sec.  and  .268  sec.  Sub- 
jects 1,  2  and  16  thought  that  the  grouping  changed  easily 
when  they  were  fatigued.  When  a  very  weak  accent  was 
introduced  every  third  in  the  series,  subjects  4  and  13  did 
not  detect  the  accent,  but  grouped  the  series  by  three,  and 
were  unable  to  suggest  any  other  form  of  grouping ;  but  they 
could  not  tell  why  the  series  grouped  this  way.  Subjects  6, 
9,  11,  12,  13,  15,  16  and  17  make  observations  upon  easy 
changes  of  the  form  of  grouping. 

The  second  method  of  determining  the  nature  of  rhythmical 
groups  was  to  give  the  subject  a  series  which  was  composed 
of  a  regularly  recurrent  set  of  sounds  of  different  intensities. 
Sets  of  two,  three  and  four  different  intensities  in  groups  of 
two,  three,  four  and  five  were  studied.  Very  few  observa- 


RHYTHM.  81 

tions  were  made  upon  5-groups.  To  make  a  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  such  series  of  sounds,  let  A,  B,  C  and  D  represent 
the  four  intensities  of  sound,  A  the  strongest,  and  D  the 
weakest.  By  using  only  two  intensities  (A  B)  it  is  possible 
to  form  the  following  series  of  sounds  : 

2-groups.  ABABABAB  (1) 

o  „  /ABBABBABB  (2) 

3-groups.         JAAB    AAB    AAB  (3) 

(ABBBABBB  (4) 

4-groups.         ^AABBAABB  (5) 

(AAABAAAB  (6) 

Of  5-groups,  these  only  were  tried  : 

ABBBBABBBB  (7) 

ABABBABABB  (8) 

AABABAABAB          (9) 

The  question  was  to  determine  where  the  mind  most 
naturally  made  the  division  into  rhythmical  groups.  The 
first  series  might  divide  in  two  ways,  thus  :  A  B — A  B, 
or  B  A — B  A.  The  second  in  three :  A  B  B — A  B  B,  or 
B  A  B— B  A  B,  or  B  B  A— B  B  A.  Details  regarding  the 
others  are  unnecessary.  Of  series  composed  of  three  intensi- 
ties, the  following  out  of  all  the  possible  forms  were  thought 
to  be  characteristic,  and  were  tried  : 

ABCABCABC 


3- groups. 

4-groups.  ACBC    ACBC    ACBC 

Of  series  of  four  intensities,  the  following  out  of  the  many 
possible  forms  were  tried  : 

A  ,™™  /     ABCD    ABCD 

4-groups.  |     ADCB    ADCB 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  rhythmical  groups  which 
each  subject  made  of  the  series  upon  which  he  was  tried.  At 
the  top  of  the  table,  in  each  column,  are  letters  which  indicate 
the  order  in  which  the  different  intensities  recurred  in  the 
various  series.  The  number  of  each  subject  is  given  in  the 
left-hand  column.  If  a  subject  has  given  a  stronger  intensity 
to  a  click  than  it  actually  possessed  (said  that  a  B  intensity 
was  equal  to  an  A,  or  a  C  to  a  B),  it  is  printed  in  full-faced 
type.  Where  a  subject  has  remarked  upon  a  longer  interval, 
either  following  or  preceding  the  strongest  sound,  this  is 
indicated  by  placing  a  dash  either  before  or  after  the  strong 
sound : 


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RHYTHM.  83 

At  the  bottom  of  each  column  is  given  the  form  of  group 
which  is  generally  made  when  the  series  is  formed  in  the  way 
indicated  by  the  letters  at  the  top  of  the  column.  Two  factors 
seem  to  operate  in  determining  where  the  series  shall  be 
divided  into  groups.  The  group  must  begin  either  with 
a  very  intense  sound  or  close  with  a  very  weak  one.  The 
subject  strives  either  to  put  all  the  strong  sounds  as  near  the 
beginning  as  possible,  or  all  the  weak  ones  as  near  the  close 
as  possible.  There  are  three  cases  where  these  principles 
are  brought  into  strong  conflict.  The  first  is  where  the  series 
is  composed  of  three  intensities,  in  the  order  of  A  C  B  or  C 
B  A.  Either  the  strongest  cannot  come  first,  or  the  weakest 
last.  The  weakest  generally  comes  last  and  the  strongest 
second;  the  second  being  the  position  of  the  secondary 
accent  in  a  musical  rhythm.  The  other  form  which  is  com- 
mon and  sometimes  preferred,  places  the  strongest  first  and 
the  weakest  second.  This  does  violence  to  both  the  weakest 
and  middle  intensities,  by  placing  an  unaccented  sound  in  a 
position  that  requires  an  accent,  and  an  accented  sound  in  a 
place  where  an  accent  does  not  occur.  A  second  case  is  where 
the  series  is  composed  of  four  different  intensities  in  the  order 
ofADCBorDCBA.  The  strife  would  be  greater  here 
than  in  the  first  case,  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that  the  third 
position  may  frequently  receive  the  sound  of  the  greatest 
intensity.  The  most  common  form  is  to  place  the  weakest 
sound  last,  and  the  strongest  in  the  third  place.  This  of 
course  leaves  the  first  place  occupied  by  an  unaccented 
sound,  though  this  sound  is  stronger  than  the  last.  Subject 
9  makes  the  strength  of  the  first  equal  to  that  of  the  second, 
and  thus  harmonizes  the  group  somewhat  with  the  4-group, 
which  is  formed  of  uniform  sounds.  The  third  case  is  where 
the  series  is  formed  of  a  sequence  of  4-groups  of  three  differ- 
ent intensities,  thus  :  A  C  B  C.  There  is  really  no  strife 
here,  except  that  the  strongest  sound  often  appears  in  the 
third  place.  There  are  some  irregularities,  but  none  sufficient 
to  require  special  notice.  The  general  principle  just  laid 
down  is  well  illustrated  in  the  last  two  forms  of  the  5-group, 
when  composed  of  two  intensities  of  sound. 

When  two  or  more  strong  sounds,  standing  together,  are 
followed  by  a  weaker  sound,  the  sound  which  is  followed 
immediately  by  a  weaker  one  appears  stronger  in  contrast 
with  the  following  weaker  sound  than  the  preceding,  which  is 
actually  of  equal  strength.  This  will  be  observed  in  every 
case  with  4-groups  composed  thus  :  A  A  A  B.  And  in 
one  case,  with  the  3-group  composed  thus  :  A  A  B.  The 
third  sound  in  the  4-group  and  the  second  sound  in  the 
3-group  appear  to  be  stronger  than  the  preceding  sound.  A 


84  BOLTON  : 

further  fact  to  which  attention  is  called,  is  the  long  interval 
which  appears  between  the  groups.  The  pause  seemed  to  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  a  long  interval  generally  preceded  the 
accented  sound.  At  the  same  time  some  subjects,  especially 

10  and  15,  make  a  short  interval  after  the  strongest  sound. 
To  most  subjects,  the  strongest  sound  seemed  longer  than 
the  rest.     With  some  this   was   more  apparent  than  with 
others.      Subjects  1,  3,  4,  10,  11,  13,  14,  15,  24,  27  and  28 
either  confound  the  accented  click  with  a  longer  interval,  or 
make  the  louder  click  seem  longer  than  the  others.      Subject 

11  speaks  of  the  strongest  sound  spreading  itself  over  the 
rest.     It  is  possible  by  voluntary  effort  to  avoid  the  illusion 
of  a  longer  interval,  either  preceding  or  following  the  accented 
sound,  but  ordinarily  it  was  very  clear.      When  the  strength 
of  all  the  sounds  in  the  series  was  increased,  the  rate  seemed 
slower.       Subject  27,   especially,   makes  this    observation. 
When  these  accented  3  and  4  groups  were  given  at  a  fast  rate 
(.134  sec.),  the  separate  clicks  seemed  to  fuse  into  a  single 
impression,  which  grouped  generally  by  four. 

The  different  intensities  of  sound  bore  no  special  relation 
to  one  another ;  the  strongest  was  clearly  discernible  from  the 
second,  and  the  second  from  the  third,  and  so  on.  When  in 
a  series  of  impressions  of  the  third  (C)  intensity,  the  strongest 
(A)  was  introduced  every  fifth,  it  seemed  to  appear  as  an 
extraneous  sound  which  would  not  group  with  the  others. 
(See  records  of  subjects  9  and  11).  It  appeared  from  several 
other  records  also  that  sounds  differing  greatly  in  intensity 
would  not  easily  group  together.  When  a  very  weak  accent 
was  placed  upon  every  third  sound,  subjects  4,  13  and  others 
did  not  discover  the  accent ;  they  expressed  their  inability  to 
group  the  series  in  any  other  way,  but  could  not  understand 
the  reason.  Subjects  13,  16  and  17  expressed  the  opinion 
that  strong  accents  were  disagreeable  ;  they  preferred  their 
own  accents  to  real  accents  of  any  strength.  Eeal  accents  did 
not  seem  to  form  so  harmonious  a  group  as  did  the  accents 
which  the  subjects  put  in  themselves. 

As  a  further  investigation  into  the  nature  of  rhythmical 
groups,  especially  with  reference  to  poetical  rhythms,  it  was 
proposed  to  employ  sounds  of  which  the  length  or  endurance 
might  be  varied.  The  click  of  the  telephone  is  almost 
instantaneous.  The  disk  probably  makes  a  very  few  vibra- 
tions. We  are  indebted  to  Dr.  E.  C.  Sanford  for  devising 
and  constructing  an  apparatus,  which  served  the  purpose 
admirably  in  some  ways.  The  principle  involved  in  this 
apparatus  was  simply  interrupting  the  sound  of  an  electric 
tuning  fork,  which  was  placed  before  the  opening  to  one  of 
Helmholtz's  resonators.  When  a  card  is  placed  over  the 


RHYTHM. 


85 


opening  into  the  resonator,  which  is  near  a  tuning  fork  of  the 
same  pitch,  the  sound  of  the  fork  is  rendered  almost 
inaudible.  Eegular  interruptions  result  in  a  series  of  uniform 
sounds  and  silences. 

FIGURE  IV.1 


For  this  experiment  were  required  an  electric  tuning  fork 
and  a  set  of  disks  with  notches  cut  in  the  circumference. 
The  resonater  rested  horizontally,  supported  by  a  stative 
near  the  edge  of  a  small  table,  upon  which  the  tuning  fork 
was  placed.  The  fork  and  the  resonator  were  placed  at  the 
same  height,  with  just  enough  space  (about  half  an  inch) 
between  the  end  of  the  fork  and  the  opening  of  the  reso- 
nator to  allow  a  pasteboard  disk  to  pass  without  interference. 
This  disk  was  about  twenty  inches  in  diameter,  and  placed 
at  just  the  proper  height  to  cover  up  the  opening  into  the 
resonator.  Notches  were  cut  in  the  circumference  of  the 
disk  in  such  a  way  that  when  it  was  revolved  the  opening 
into  the  resonator  was  now  closed  and  now  open.  With  a 
regular  revolution  of  the  disk,  and  with  notches  of  an  equal 
number  of  degrees,  and  equal  spaces,  a  series  of  sounds,  uni- 
form in  length,  pitch  and  intensity,  would  be  produced.  To  get 
sounds  of  different  lengths,  some  notches  were  made  to  cover  a 
greater  number  of  degrees  of  the  circumference  than  others. 

aThis  represents  the  apparatus  as  it  has  since  been  perfected  by 
Dr.  Sanford. 


86  BOLTON  : 

The  number  of  degrees  in  some  cases  was  twice  that  of  others. 
By  cutting  the  notches  upon  the  arc  of  a  circle,  and  at  just  a 
sufficient  depth  to  cover  a  part  of  the  opening  of  the  reso- 
nator, it  was  possible  to  decrease  the  strength  of  the  resonance, 
and  thus  get  a  sound  of  less  intensity.  This  gave  the  effect 
of  an  accent  upon  certain  sounds  by  weakening  others. 

The  following  are  the  forms  of  disks  that  were  thought  to 
be  characteristic.  Just  enough  space  was  left  between  the 
notches  to  cause  a  silence  in  the  sound  of  the  fork.  The 
spaces  were  always  of  the  same  number  of  degrees  in  a  given 
disk.  Notches  were  cut  in  the  circumferences  of  the  disks 
as  follows : 

1.  Two  notches,  each  of  150  degrees.     One  accented. 

2.  One  notch,  200  degrees,  and  one,  100  degrees. 

3.  One  notch,  200  degrees — accented — and  one,   100  de- 
grees. 

4.  Three  notches,  each  of  100  degrees. 

5.  Three  notches,  each  of  66  degrees.      The  spaces  of  40 
degrees. 

6.  Three  notches,  each  of  100  degrees.     One  accented. 

7.  One  notch,  120  degrees,  and  two,  each  of  60  degrees. 

8.  One  notch,  120  degrees — accented — and  two,  each  of  60. 

9.  Four  notches,  each  of  60  degrees.     Strong  accent  upon 
the  first,  and  weak  upon  the  third. 

The  question  was  to  determine  where  the  rhythmical  groups 
began,  with  the  long  or  the  short  sounds.  As  the  pause 
between  the  successive  sounds  was  the  same  length,  it  is  a 
matter  of  interest  to  determine  what  effect  the  rhythmical 
group  had  upon  the  pause  coming  after  the  sound  with  which 
the  group  closed. 

The  results  of  the  experiments  with  the  different  series  of 
sounds  produced  by  the  disks,  as  described  above,  are  given 
in  the  following  table.  A  long  sound  is  indicated  by  a  capital 
letter,  and  a  short  one  by  a  small  letter.  In  disk  9  the  ac- 
cented sounds,  which  were  of  different  intensities,  are  repre- 
sented, the  stronger  by  a  bold  faced  A,  and  the  weaker  by  a 
bold-faced  B.  An  accented  sound  is  given  in  full-faced  type. 
In  turning  the  disk,  the  operator  sought  to  keep  a  uniform 
speed  at  a  moderate  rate — about  one  turn  to  the  second : 


RHYTHM. 


87 


2-QROUPS. 

3-GROUPS. 

4-GROUPS. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

A  A 

A  a 

A  a 

A  A  A 

A  A   A 

A  A  A 

A  a  a 

A  a  a 

A  A  B  A 

1 

a  A 

a  A- 

A  A  A 
A  A  A  A 

A  A  A 

A  A  A- 

a  a  A 

a  a  A 

3 

A  A  A  A 

A  a  A  a 

A  A  A  A 
A  A  A 

AAAA 

A  a  a 
a  a  A 

a  a  A 

A  A  B  A 

4 

a  A 

a  A 

A  A  A 
A  A  A  A 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

B  A  A  A 

7 

a  A 

A  A  A  A 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

a  a  A 

10 

a  A 

A  A  A  A 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

B  A  A  A 

11 

A  A 
AA  A  A 

A  a 

A  a 

A  A  A  A 
A  A  A 

A  A  A 

A  A  A 

A  a  a 

A  a  a 

A  A  B  A 

15 

A  A 

a  A 

A  A  A 

A  A  -A 

a  a  A 

a  a  A 

A  B  A  A 

17 

A  A 

a  A 
a  A  a  A 

a  A 

A  A  A 
A  A  A  A 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

18 

a  A 

No  group 

a  a  A 

27 

a  A 

a  A 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

28 

A  A 

a  A 

a  A 

A  A  A  A 

A  A  A 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

a  a  A 

A  A  B  A 

Groups 
prefer'd. 

A  A 

a  A 

or 

a  A 

a  A 

4  -group 

or 

3  -group 

A  A  A 

a  a  A 

a  a  A 

A  A  B  A 

Several  facts  are  to  be  observed  in  this  table.  First,  a 
series  of  sounds  of  uniform  length  and  intensity  may  be 
grouped  by  two,  three  or  four.  With  disk  No.  4,  while  the 
most  common  form  of  grouping  was  by  three  or  four,  by 
turning  very  slowly  it  was  possible  to  group  by  two,  or  by 
turning  faster  to  group  by  six  or  eight.  With  No.  1  it  was 
easy  to  group  by  two  or  four  by  turning  slower  or  faster.  , 
When  disk  No.  9  was  turned  at  a  slow  rate,  the  sounds  were 
grouped  by  two,  at  a  faster  rate  by  four,  and  at  a  still  faster 
rate  the  4-groups  were  grouped  by  two  or  by  four. 

Second,  a  more  intense  sound  occurring  regularly,  imposes 
a  grouping  according  to  the  number  of  sounds  between  the 
accents.  The  accented  sound  comes  first  in  the  2  and  3-groups, 
and  in  the  4-group  the  first  and  third  receive  accents.  The 
first  is  more  strongly  accented  than  the  third. 


88  BOLTON  : 

Third,  a  longer  sound  occurring  regularly  in  the  series, 
imposes  a  grouping  according  to  the  number  of  sounds 
between  the  longer  ones.  The  long  sound,  as  a  rule,  is 
the  last  in  the  group,  and  is  frequently  accented.  It  was 
possible  for  most  subjects  to  change  the  place  of  the  long 
sound  to  the  first  of  the  group,  but  with  the  exception  of 
subject  11,  it  was  difficult  to  keep  it  at  the  beginning  of  the 
group.  Most  subjects  remarked  upon  the  long  interval  or 
pause  which  seemed  to  follow  the  long  sound,  and  for  this 
reason  it  was  found  difficult  to  make  the  close  of  the  group 
come  at  any  other  place.  When  the  attempt  was  made  to 
begin  the  group  with  the  long  sound,  the  preceding  group 
would  not  seem  to  separate  from  the  following ;  the  two 
would  run  together  and  become  indistinguishable.  In  the 
telephone  experiments,  when  a  subject  attempted  to  suggest 
a  3 -group,  which  was  accented  upon  the  third  by  counting 
one,  two,  three,  emphasizing  three,  it  required  the  closest 
attention  to  make  the  group  close  with  three,  for  the  emphatic 
three  would  begin  the  group  thus  :  Three,  one,  two,  etc. 

Although  it  was  impossible  to  control  the  rate,  faster  rates 
than  common  caused  these  groups  to  group  by  two  or  four. 

The  accented  long  sound  frequently  appeared  more  pro- 
longed than  the  unaccented  sound  of  the  same  length ;  the 
accent  had  the  effect  both  to  increase  the  length  of  sound  and 
of  the  interval  which  followed. 

When  the  short  sound  in  disk  No.  2  and  the  last  short 
sound  in  disk  No.  7  were  accented,  the  accented  sound  always 
came  first  and  the  long  sound  last.  It  was  more  difficult 
with  this  arrangement  to  place  the  long  sound  first  and  the 
accented  last,  than  before. 

The  results  of  this  experiment  confirm  in  part  the  results 
of  previous  experiments  concerning  the  nature  of  rhythmical 
groups.  First,  the  accented  sounds  occupy  the  first  place  in 
the  group.  Second,  the  weaker  accent  comes  upon  the  third 
sound  in  the  4- group.  Fast  rates  with  accented  groups 
caused  them  to  fall  into  higher  groups,  first  of  two,  and  then 
of  three  or  four. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  nature  of  the 
rhythmical  group.  The  general  principle  is  this :  In  a 
series  of  auditory  impressions,  any  regularly  recurrent  im- 
pression which  is  different  from  the  rest,  subordinates  the 
other  impressions  to  it  in  such  a  way  that  they  fall  together 
in  groups.  If  the  recurrent  difference  is  one  of  intensity,  the 
strongest  impression  comes  first  in  the  group  and  the  weaker 
ones  after.  If  the  recurrent  difference  is  one  of  duration,  the 
longest  impression  comes  last.  These  rules  of  course  hold 
good  only  within  the  limits  spoken  of  above.  When  the  im- 
pressions are  uniform  in  length  and  intensity,  the  mind 


RHYTHM.  89 

enforces  a  grouping  by  giving  fictitious  values  to  the  impres- 
sions, generally  with  respect  to  intensity,  but  sometimes  with 
respect  to  duration.  At  the  rate  .795  sec.,  the  mind  intensi- 
fies every  other  sound,  so  that  the  series  is  grouped  by  two. 
The  second  sound  in  the  group  is  subordinated  to  the  first. 
At  the  rate  of  .460  sec.,  the  mind  finds  it  easy  to  group  a 
series  of  auditory  impressions  by  three,  by  intensifying  the 
first  greatly  and  the  second  slightly,  so  that  the  second  is 
subordinated  to  the  first  and  the  third  to  the  second.  More 
than  three  degrees  of  intensity  do  not  appear  together  in  the 
order  of  their  intensities  in  a  series.  In  grouping  by  four, 
which  takes  place  generally  at  the  rate  .307  sec.,  the  mind 
accents  the  first  strongly  and  the  third  slightly.  The  second 
and  fourth  impressions  are  generally  of  the  same  intensity. 
If  there  is  any  difference  in  intensity,  the  second  is  stronger 
than  the  fourth,  but  it  is  always  less  than  the  third  or  the 
first.  It  would  appear  from  this  that  the  4-group  is  com- 
pounded of  two  2-groups,  or  it  may  perhaps  arise,  as  Haupt- 
mann  says  in  his  "  Natur  der  Harmonik  und  Eythmik,"  from 
a  combination  of  two  3-groups.  However  this  may  be,  the 
4-group  does  appear  as  a  harmonious  and  organic  unity  in 
itself.  Given,  then,  a  series  of  impressions  which  is  made 
up  of  three  or  four  intensities  recurring  as  a  sequence  of 
fours,  the  mind  divides  the  series  into  rhythmical  groups, 
whatever  may  be  the  arrangement  of  the  intensities  in  the 
sequence  of  four,  so  that  the  impressions  are  subordinated  to 
one  another  as  nearly  as  possible  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end.  The  effort  is  always  made  to  subordinate  the  last  im- 
pressions to  the  first.  The  same  holds  good  for  series  which 
are  made  up  of  sequences  of  two  or  three.  In  a  sequence  of 
twos,  only  two  impressions  can  recur  ;  the  stronger  is  always 
first  in  the  group.  In  a  sequence  of  threes,  the  groups  may 
contain  two  or  three  different  intensities,  but  the  mind  always 
divides  the  series  in  such  a  way  that  either  the  strongest 
comes  first  or  the  weakest  last. 

When  the  series  is  composed  of  impressions  different  in  dura- 
tion (the  longer  impression  twice  the  length  of  the  shorter), 
recurring  in  a  sequence  of  twos,  the  mind  groups  the  series  by 
two,  placing  the  longer  impression  last,  and  at  the  same 
time  gives  to  it  frequently  a  greater  intensity.  When  the 
series  is  composed  of  a  sequence  of  threes,  one  long  and  two 
short,  the  mind  groups  the  series  by  three,  placing  the  longer 
sound  last,  and  at  the  same  time  giving  to  it  also  frequently 
a  greater  intensity.  The  order  of  subordination  is  here 
reversed.  The  more  important  element  in  the  group  comes 
last.  For  this  fact  we  can  offer  no  explanation  upon  purely 
psychological  grounds.  The  fact,  however,  is  interesting  for 
its  connection  with  poetry.  Although,  as  we  have  seen, 


DO  BOLTON : 

English  poetry  in  its  early  history  contained  feet  accented 
upon  the  first  syllable,  the  most  common  foot  in  modern 
poetry  is  accented  upon  the  last  syllable.  What  formerly 
was  the  beginning  of  the  foot  is  now  the  end.  In  the  experi- 
mental study  wifch  long  and  short  sounds — these  correspond 
to  syllables — all  the  subjects  found  great  difficulty  in  not  mak- 
ing a  pause  after  the  long  sound,  which  compelled  them  to 
begin  the  group  with  the  short  sound.  It  was  impossible  to 
avoid  this  pause  or  to  make  another  after  the  short  sound 
^qual  to  it,  although  the  interval  in  every  case  was  the  same. 
Upon  this  basis  and  other  facts  mentioned  above,  we  are  able 
to  base  our  answer  to  the  question  whether  there  is  a  foot- 
division  in  English  poetry.  Although  the  long  and  short 
syllables  do  not  stand  in  the  absolute  relation  of  two  to  one, 
yet  the  syllables  do  differ  in  length  and  in  intensity  of  accent, 
and  for  that  reason  they  tend  to  fall  together  in  groups.  The 
accented  syllables,  like  the  accented  sound,  will  seem  to  be 
longer  than  the  unaccented,  and  in  uttering  them  the  speaker 
will  prolong  them  still  farther.  Series  of  syllables,  then, 
which  are  arranged  with  reference  to  the  regular  recurrence 
of  the  accented  syllables  will  fall  into  groups,  and  since  the 
accented  syllables  are  longer  than  the  unaccented,  a  pause 
will  be  felt  after  the  long  syllable.  To  use  the  Latin  termi- 
nology, the  most  natural  foot  must  be  either  iambic  or 
anapaestic.  This,  however,  seems  to  be  due  largely  to 
modern  ways  of  utterance.  In  order  for  a  word  to  be  intelli- 
gible, it  must  be  distinctly  and  carefully  enunciated.  In  the 
early  history  of  poetry,  it  was  always  recited  in  highly 
emotional  states ;  words  were  not  articulated,  they  were 
houted.  The  line  of  poetry  was  little  more  than  a  series 
of  strong  and  weak  sounds,  which,  we  can  argue  upon 
the  basis  of  our  experiments,  would  be  grouped  with  the 
strongest  first  and  the  weakest  last.  In  the  change  from  the 
merely  emotional  shout  to  articulated  utterance,  the  character 
of  the  foot  changed  from  one  which  was  accented  upon  the 
first  to  one  which  was  accented  upon  the  last. 

We  come  now  to  the  subject  of  muscular  movements  and 
their  relation  to  rhythms.  Most  subjects  felt  themselves 
impelled  by  an  irresistible  force  to  make  muscular  move- 
ments of  some  sort  accompanying  the  rhythms.  If  they 
attempted  to  restrain  these  movements  in  one  muscle,  they 
were  very  likely  to  appear  somewhere  else.  Wundt1  says 
that  the  intensive  clang  change  has  its  nearest  pattern  in  the 
sensation  of  motion.  A  corresponding  rhythmical  series  of 
motions  associates  itself  in  dancing,  marching  and  beating 

^hysiologische  Psychologie,  Vol.  II.  p.  73. 


RHYTHM.  91 

time,  with  almost  irresistible  force  to  the  changes  of  strength 
in  the  clang. 

The  most  common  forms  of  muscular  movement  were  beat- 
ing time  with  the  foot,  nodding  the  head,  or  swaying  the  body. 
Subjects  3,  10  and  17  accompanied  the  rhythmical  grouping 
by  muscular  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  chest,  and  it 
was  exceedingly  difficult  to  restrain  them.  Other  subjects 
counted  inaudibly  or  made  the  proper  muscular  adjustments 
for  counting.  Slight  or  nascent  muscular  contractions  were 
felt  in  the  root  of  the  tongue  or  larynx.  Most  subjects  were 
unconscious  of  their  muscular  movements  until  their  attention 
was  called  to  them,  and  subject  15  never  became  conscious  of 
the  rhythmical  contractions  in  the  eyelids.  When  he  was 
asked  to  restrain  all  muscular  movements,  he  found  great 
difficulty  in  maintaining  the  rhythmical  grouping.  This  fact 
was  remarked  upon  by  other  subjects  also.  The  reader  is 
referred  to  the  records  of  subjects  2,  3,  7,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13 
and  15. 

Of  the  same  nature  as  muscular  movements,  are  the  asso- 
ciations of  various  objects.  Most  subjects  visualized  the 
pendulum  and  clocks,  large  and  small.  Several  referred  to 
the  conical  pendulum,  striking  three  or  four  times  in  a  swing, 
and  others  to  revolving  wheels.  Subject  14  visualized  a 
series  of  dots,  and  subject  11  at  one  time  an  undulating  line, 
and  at  another  an  ellipse  with  four  dots  placed  upon  either 
side.  Subject  15  made  a  color  association. 

The  question  we  have  to  decide  upon  is,  are  these  muscular 
movements  and  associations  the  result  or  the  conditions  of 
the  rhythmical  grouping  ?  With  Kibot  we  accept  without 
hesitation  the  latter. 

Kibot  states  this  principle,  "  Every  intellectual  state  is 
accompanied  by  physical  manifestations. l  Thought  is  not — 
as  many,  from  tradition,  still  admit — an  event  taking  place 
in  a  purely  supersensual,  ethereal,  inaccessible  world.  We 
shall  repeat  with  Setchenoff,  i  No  thought  without  expression,7 
that  is,  thought  is  a  word  or  an  act  in  a  nascent  state,  that  is 
to  say,  a  commencement  of  muscular  activity. "  Each  im- 
pression as  it  enters  into  consciousness  tends  to  find  expres- 
sion in  a  muscular  movement,  but  the  intensive  changes  in 
the  series  of  impressions  produce  corresponding  changes  in 
the  intensity  of  the  sensations,  which  must  find  expression  in 
different  degrees  of  muscular  activity.  In  order  to  express 
these  different  degrees  of  sensation,  the  muscular  movements, 
must  rise  above  the  merely  nascent  state  in  which  they 
ordinarily  occur,  and  manifest  themselves  in  visible  muscular 

*The  Psychology  of  Attention. 


92  BOLTON  : 

movements.  The  tendency  for  sensation  to  find  expression 
in  visible  muscular  movements  is  stronger  with  children  and 
primitive  peoples  than  it  is  with  highly  civilized  and 
especially  well  trained  persons.  With  the  latter  class,  mus- 
cular movements  accompanying  attention  do  not  so  easily 
rise  above  the  nascent  state. 

Exact  coordinations  of  sounds  with  respect  to  intensity  are 
difficult,  for  the  reason  that  great  degrees  of  difference  must  be 
allowed,  that  two  sounds  may  be  discriminated.  This  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  higher  groupings  of  4-groups  are  difficult,  for  the 
reason  that  the  differences  in  the  accents  cannot  be  kept  clear. 
Groups  of  six  and  eight  are  difficult  because  the  different 
degrees  of  intensity  required  cannot  be  discriminated.  Pitch 
changes  are  much  more  easily  discriminated,  and  more  exact 
coordinations  are  possible.  They  find  their  expression  in 
different  degrees  of  tension  in  the  muscles  of  the  larynx. 
With  fast  rates  the  intensive  changes  recur  more  rapidly, 
and  hence  call  for  more  rapid  muscular  movements.  On  this 
account  the  faster  rates  were  found  exhilarating  and  animating, 
and  the  slower  rates  drowsy  and  soporific. 

For  the  same  reason,  subject  12  found  that  a  change  from 
a  3-group  to  a  4-group  gave  rise  to  a  feeling  of  a  slower  pace. 
Within  certain  limits  the  mind  can  easily  accommodate  itself 
to  changes  of  rate.  A  rate  which  seemed  unpleasantly  slow 
or  fast  at  first,  became  in  time  pleasant.  If  the  rate  is  slow, 
the  grouping  which  is  first  suggested  is  accompanied  by  a 
feeling  of  suspense — subject  11  said  the  group  broke  off  with 
a  "  dead  end" — but  if  ir  is  fast  there  is  a  straining  after  a 
longer  group,  or  perhaps  a  hurried,  animating  feeling  which 
becomes  monotonous.  If  a  subject  maintained  a  2-group,  for 
instance,  with  a  rate  which  was  naturally  too  fast  for  group- 
ing by  two,  it  became  exceedingly  monotonous  in  a  short  time. 

If  the  length  of  the  group  corresponds  to  the  normal  wave 
of  attention,  the  grouping  gives  rise  to  a  feeling  of  satisfaction 
and  repose.  There  is  probably  not  an  absolute  psychic  con- 
stant in  attention  which  admits  of  no  variations  without  feel- 
ings of  dissatisfaction,  but  within  limits  a  constant  is  easily 
established,  which,  if  changed  gradually,  accommodates  itself 
to  a  longer  or  a  shorter  interval.  A  sudden  change,  however, 
cannot  take  place  without  difficultyAV  For  this  reason,  if  the 
grouping  enforced  by  an  irregular  recurrence  of  an  accented 
sound  change  rapidly  from  one  form  of  grouping  to  another, 
it  gives  rise  to  an  alternation  of  feelings  of  suspense  and 
straining  which  no  one  fails  to  perceive.  The  same  phenom- 
enon would  arise  if  the  temporal  sequence  of  the  impressions 
were  irregular.  Either  it  would  be  necessary  to  group  now 
by  three  and  now  by  four,  or  by  two,  that  the  interval  between 


RHYTHM.  93 

the  successive  accents  should  be  the  same,  or  there  would  be 
an  alternation  of  feelings  of  suspense  and  of  straining  to 
maintain  a  grouping  by  three  or  any  other  number.  When  the 
rate  was  changing  rapidly,  as  it  did  just  after  the  chronoscope 
was  started  (it  required  ordinarily  about  two  minutes  for  the 
chronoscope  to  attain  its  full  speed),  subject  4,  especially, 
and  others  remarked  upon  the  diagreeable  effect.  The 
accommodation  to  any  form  of  grouping  within  certain  limits  is 
easy,  providing  there  is  a  perfect  regularity  in  the  sequence. 
The  accents  must  recur  at  regular  intervals,  and  the  number 
of  intermediate  impressions  remain  the  same,  or  there  is  no 
feeling  of  rhythm.  When  a  slow  rate  was  succeeded  by  a 
faster  one,  it  gave  rise  generally  to  a  disagreeable  effect ;  but 
in  time  the  subject  could  accommodate  himself  to  it.  Subjects 
4,  9  and  15  make  observations  upon  this  point.  Subjects  2 
and  5  were  greatly  puzzled  over  a  5 -group  which  was  accented 
on  the  first  and  third  sounds.  They  attempted  to  group  by 
two  "and  by  three  alternately,  which  gave  rise  to  a  very  disa- 
greeable feeling.  When,  however,  they  grasped  the  regular 
sequence  of  five,  the  disagreeable  feeling  passed  away. 

When  a  longer  interval  was  introduced  into  the  series,  the 
impressions  coming  between  the  long  intervals  fell  together 
into  a  group,  but  they  did  not  form  an  organic  unity.  There 
was  no  pleasure  in  such  a  rhythm.  Something  seemed  to  be 
looked  for  in  this  longer  interval  which  was  wanting.  When 
the  rate  was  made  very  fast,  the  impressions  between  the 
long  interval  seemed  to  fuse  together  into  a  single  impression 
and  then  to  group  by  two  or  four. 

This  general  principle  may  be  stated  :  The  conception  oj£t 
a  rhythm  demands  a  perfectly  regular  sequence  of  im- 
pressions within  the  limits  of  about  1.0  sec.  and  0.1  sec. 
A  member  of  the  sequence  may  contain  one  or  more  simple 
impressions.  If  there  are  a  number  of  impressions,  they 
may  stand  in  any  order  of  arrangement,  or  even  in  a  state 
of  confusion,  but  each  member  of  the  sequence  must  be 
exactly  the  same  in  the  arrangement  of  its  elements. 

The  application  of  this  principle  to  poetry  demands  that 
the  accents  in  a  line  shall  recur  at  regular  intervals  ;  it 
requires  also  that  the  successive  feet  in  a  line  shall  be  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  character.  The  introduction  of  a  3- syllable 
foot  into  an  iambic  verse  is  allowable  on  this  condition  only, 
that  the  3- syllable  foot  can  be  read  in  the  same  time  of  the 
two,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  disturbance  in  the  temporal 
sequence  of  the  accents.  This  foot  affects  the  rhythm  in  so 
far  only  as  it  changes  the  character  of  one  member  of  the 
sequence.  This  is  an  actual  disturbance  to  the  rhythm,  but 
it  is  allowable  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis.  The  frequent 


94  BOLTON  : 

use  of  such  a  foot  would  be  fatal.  Poe's  principle  that  the 
regular  foot  must  continue  long  enough  in  the  line,  and  be 
sufficiently  prominent  in  the  verse  to  thoroughly  establish 
itself,  is  perfectly  valid.  In  a  musical  rhythm,  however,  the 
measures  may  vary  with  certain  restrictions  in  the  arrange- 
ments of  their  elements.  But  it  is  just  this  variation  which 
constitutes  the  melody  to  a  certain  extent.  The  rhythm  is 
varied  for  purposes  of  melody,  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  dis- 
turbance to  the  rhythmical  flow  in  so  far  that  it  changes  the 
measure.  The  melody  is  a  new  and  higher  unifying  agency, 
which  corresponds  in  a  way  to  the  use  of  rhymes  in  poetry. 
The  temporal  sequence  of  the  accents  is  always  preserved. 

It  remains  now  to  make  my  acknowledgment  to  those  who 
have  assisted  in  the  work. 

To  President  G.  Stanley  Hall  I  am  indebted  not  only  for 
the  subject  itself,  but  for  a  large  amount  of  material  which 
he  had  already  collected  upon  it ;  also  for  suggestions  as 
regards  the  direction  of  the  experiment  and  references  to 
literature. 

To  Dr.  E.  C.  Sanford,  the  director  of  the  laboratory,  is  due 
much  of  the  credit  for  the  success  of  the  work.  But  for  his 
skill  in  devising  and  constructing  apparatus,  the  work  could 
not  have  been  carried  on.  His  suggestions  as  regards 
methods  for  making  the  experiment  were  no  less  valuable 
than  his  assistance  in  devising  apparatus.  To  all  others  who 
so  generously  gave  up  their  time  to  sit  through  long  and 
tedious  experiments,  I  acknowledge  my  indebtedness.  Space 
forbids  me  making  special  reference  to  each  one. 

CLARK  UNIVERSITY, 

Worcester,  Mass. 
August,  1893. 


••1 


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